Below is a list of researches that have utilized the CPAI, CPAI-2, or the CPAI-A; including:
(1) Publication by our research team; and
(2) Publication by other researchers.
Researches on this page are ordered according to the years of publication, if you would like to view them arranged according to the names of the authors, please click here.
Publication by Our Research Team:
Li, M., Fan, W., Chen, X., & Cheung, F. M. (2019). Independent and interdependent personalities at individual and group levels: Predicting loneliness in Chinese adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 147, 85-90
Li, M., Fan, W., Cheung, F. M., & Wang, Q. (2018). Reciprocal Associations Between Career Self-Efficacy and Vocational Identity: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study. Journal of Career Assessment, https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072718796035
Li, M., Fan, W., Cheung, F., & Wang, Q. (2018). Could Meaning in Life Contribute to Adolescents’ Vocational Commitment and Identity? A Longitudinal Analysis in Different Chinese Cultures. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 12, E36. doi:10.1017/prp.2018.24
Fan, W., Zhou, M., Cheung, F. M., Zhang, J., & Zhou, X. (2016). Contributions of resilience to mental health in chinese secondary school students at different disaster stress levels. The Asia - Pacific Education Researcher, 25(3), 389-398
[Abstract] A key feature of positive education is its focus on factors that can help students flourish. In the current study, we examined the role of resilience in promoting optimal mental health of Chinese secondary school students who suffered the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China. In the earthquake central region, 518 participants recruited in November 2008 about 6 months and 473 participants recruited 1 year after the earthquake, were assumed to have the highest and mid-level disaster stress levels, respectively. 602 participants from areas unaffected by the earthquake in December 2008 were assumed to have the lowest stress level. Participants’ mental health and resilience were assessed by the clinical scales of the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory for Adolescents and the Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescents, respectively. Higher stress level participants reported significantly lower resilience and higher mental health problems. Negative correlations between resilience and mental health problems were confirmed across the three groups. Only supportive power resilience showed significant predictions on mental health problems in the two earthquake groups. The implications on mental health counseling and positive education in Chinese secondary school students were discussed.
Xie, Q., Fan, W., Wong, P., & Cheung, F. M. (2016). Personality and parenting style as predictors of life satisfaction among chinese secondary students. The Asia - Pacific Education Researcher, 25(3), 423-432.
[Abstract] Student life satisfaction plays a key role in academic achievement; however, the exploration on the predictors of life satisfaction in secondary school students is insufficient. This study explored how indigenous personality traits and parenting style predicted students’ life satisfaction. The participants were 718 junior secondary students in China with a mean age of 13.39 years. Personality, parental style, and life satisfaction were assessed through inventories which were statistically supported in the literature. The results showed that personality, parenting style, and life satisfaction were interrelated. Personality and parenting style altogether accounted for around 31 % variance in student global life satisfaction. Specifically, global life satisfaction could be predicted by the personality factors of emotional stability, dependability, and indigenous interpersonal relatedness as well as authoritative and permissive parenting styles. Different domains of life satisfaction were predicted by personality factors and parenting styles to different extents. Implications for cross-cultural theorizing and positive education are discussed.
Fang, Y.,Gong, X.,Lu, M. & Fung, H.H. (2015). Cross-Cultural Aging. Encyclopedia of Geropsychology, 2015, 1-10.
[Abstract] Population aging is a worldwide phenomenon. This entry provides an overview of extant research on how age differences in cognition, affect, and behavior vary across cultures. While this inquiry is driven by the need for science to understand the relative contributions of culture in explaining the impact of aging on human psychology, it also underscores the importance of recognizing the role of culture, in a world growing in its awareness of cultural diversity. The contents of this entry are thematically organized into cognitive aging, socio-cognitive aging, and socio-emotional aging with a focus on differences between Eastern (typically East Asian) and Western (typically North American) cultures.
Leung, K., Wang, J. & Deng, H. (2015). How can Indigenous Research Contribute to Universal Knowledge? An Illustration with Research on Interpersonal Harmony Japanese Psychological Research
[Abstract] The indigenous perspective can provide a more complete, in-depth, and accurate account of psychological phenomena for a given culture, but a major issue is that indigenous research tends to be ignored by researchers from other cultures. Chinese researchers who conduct research on indigenous issues may find it hard to publish in major English-language journals. This paper explores how Chinese indigenous research is able to contribute to universal knowledge. Chinese are characterized by a relational and collectivistic orientation, whereas theories in the West tend to have a self-focus, primarily due to its individualistic culture. However, most psychological research conducted in the Chinese context is guided by Western theories, which likely results in incomplete understanding of Chinese behavior. A relational perspective can augment Western theories and facilitate the contribution of Chinese indigenous research to new theory development. To illustrate this possibility, this article summarizes current indigenous research on two harmony motives, and shows how such research can contribute to a compelling refinement and extension of social exchange theory.
Leung, K., Chen, Z., Zhou, F., & Lim, K. (2014). The role of relational orientation as measured by face and renqing in innovative behavior in China: An indigenous analysis. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31, 105-126.
[Abstract] Following an indigenous approach, the relationship of the relational orientation of Chinese employees with their innovative behavior is evaluated in China with a cross-level design. Based on relevant research and theorizing, relational orientation is tapped by two core elements, face and renqing (compassion for others). As expected, relational orientation is positively related to fear of failure, but negatively related to innovative behavior. The positive relationship between relational orientation and fear of failure, and the negative relationship between fear of failure and innovative behavior, are weaker when innovative climate is high. Theoretical and applied implications of the findings are discussed.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., & Fan, W. (2013). From Chinese to Cross-Cultural Personality Inventory: A combined emic-etic approach to the study of personality in culture. In M. J. Gelfand, C. Chiu, & Y. Hong (Eds.). Advances in Culture and Psychology (Volume 3), 117-180.
[Abstract] This chapter summarizes the stages of cross-cultural personality assessment adopted by psychologists outside Western cultures, which saw challenges to the imposed etic approach being raised by indigenous approaches in Asia. The recent internationalization orientation among indigenous psychologists has led to a more culturally inclusive stage of personality assessment and support for a combined emic-etic approach to the study of personality in culture. Research on the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2) illustrates the benefits of this approach, not only to the study of personality in Chinese cultures but also to the cross-cultural comparison of personality structures with other Asian and non-Asian cultures. The cultural perspectives of the combined emic-etic approach enrich the study of personality in mainstream psychology.
Ho, M. Y., Chen, X., Cheung, F. M., Liu, H., & Worthington Jr., E. L. (2013). A dyadic model of the work-family interface: A study of dual-earner couples in China. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18, 53-63.
[Abstract] This study adopted a spillover-crossover model to examine the roles of personality and perceived social support as antecedents of the work-family interface among dual-earner couples in China. Married couples (N = 306) from 2 major cities in China (Shanghai and Jinan) completed questionnaires measuring a relationship-oriented personality trait (i.e., family orientation), perceived family and work support, and work-family conflict and enhancement. The results showed that family orientation and perceived family support was positively associated with family-to-work enhancement and negatively associated with family-to-work conflict for both husbands and wives. Perceived work support was positively associated with family-to-work enhancement for wives and negatively associated with work-to-family conflict for husbands. Similarities in family orientation between partners were positively correlated with the individual's family-to-work enhancement. This study also illustrated the crossover of the work-family interface between dual-earner couples by using the actor-partner interdependence model. The pattern of associations between personality trait and perceived social support varied by gender. Husbands' family orientation was negatively correlated with work-to-family enhancement experienced by wives, and husbands' perceived work support was positively correlated with work-to-family enhancement experienced by wives. Wives' perceived work support was positively correlated with family-to-work conflict experienced by husbands.
Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., You, J., Kam, C., Zhang, X., & Kliewer, W. (2013). The moderating role of emotional stability in the relationship between exposure to violence and anxiety and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 634-639.
[Abstract] Several decades of research have documented negative consequences of exposure to violence on the psychological adjustment of children and adolescents (Berton and Stabb, 1996, Lynch, 2003 and Margolin and Gordis, 2000). Exposure to violence (e.g., victims of assaultive violence) is associated with psychological symptoms among school-aged children (Fowler et al., 2009 and Stein et al., 2001). In addition to exposure to violence, personality dispositions can markedly influence levels of emotional health. For example, in a sample of urban adolescents exposed to violence, self-esteem was negatively related to depressive symptoms (Fitzpatrick, Piko, Wright, & LaGory, 2005). These findings suggest the direct effects of both violence exposure and personality on mental health. However, little is known about whether personality moderates the relationship between violence exposure and anxiety and depression. To the best of our knowledge, the protective role of the personality factor emotional stability has not been examined empirically in resilience research with adolescents. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential moderating role of emotional stability in associations among exposure to violence and anxiety and depression in an adolescent sample. This research adds to existing literature by examining contextual and emotional stability personality factors that contribute to anxiety and depression within a Chinese sample of adolescents.
Cheung, F. M., Fan, W., & Yao, J. (2012). Chinese personality and vocational behavior. In X. Huang, & M. H. Bond (Eds.). Handbook of Chinese Organizational Behavior: Integrating Theory, Research and Practice. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
[From Chapter] The prominent role of personality in vocational psychology is evidenced by a large volume of academic literature on these topics and the active engagement of industrial-organizational psychologists in applying personality theory and assessment to inform their practice (Burch and Anderson, 2009; Hough, 1998). Personality is related to a wide range of vocational behaviors including 'choice-related processes', 'general career processes', 'occupational well-being' and 'organizational outcomes' (Tokar et al., 1998). Several meta-analyses have consistently confirmed that personality predicts different indicators of work performance (Barrick et al., 2001; Dudley et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2010). Most of the studies in the literature have adopted the Five-Factor theory as the model of personality (Hurtz and Donovan, 2000). Among the five factors, neuroticism, conscientiousness and extraversion have emerged as the most frequent predictors of vocational behavior. In addition to studies of general personality factors, lower-order personality facets are also found to be useful in specific predictions (e.g. Dudley et al., 2006; Sullivan and Hansen, 2004). Similarly, personality is also considered as an important predictor of many work-related outcomes in Chinese society. Substantial research in industrial-organizational settings has examined how personality characteristics influence job stress, work performance, leadership and vocational behavior (e.g. Jin et al., 2009; Liao and Lian, 2002). The imported personality instruments most commonly used in such studies have included the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the 16 Personality Factor (16PF), and the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R). We present a brief overview of relevant Chinese studies on the relationship between such personality measures and major vocational variables. We review the use of the The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory and highlight the predictive value of its indigenous scales on important aspects of vocational behavior.
Fan, W., Cheung, F. M., Leong, F. T. L., & Cheung, S. F. (2012). Personality Traits, Vocational Interests, and Career Exploration: A Cross-cultural Comparison between American and Hong Kong Students. Journal of Career Assessment, 20,105-119.
[Abstract] This study compared the pattern of relationships among personality, vocational interests, and career exploration within an integrated framework between 369 American and 392 Hong Kong university students. The first hypothesis predicted differential contributions of the universal and indigenous personality dimensions based on the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory-2 (CPAI-2) to career exploration of the American and Hong Kong students. The second hypothesis predicted that vocational interests mediated the association between personality and career exploration of the students. Cultural differences were found between the personality predictors for Hong Kong and American students, supporting the first hypothesis. The CPAI-2 indigenous personality dimensions derived in the Chinese cultural context predicted career exploration of Hong Kong students only. The second hypothesis was partially supported: Enterprise interest type mediated the association between Social Potency and career exploration in the Hong Kong sample; Artistic interest type was the mediator in the American sample. The contributions of personality and vocational interests to students' career exploration, and the implications to cross-cultural career counseling were discussed.
Lai, C. M. Leung, F., You, J., & Cheung, F. (2012). Are DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder, ICD-10 Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder, and CCMD-III Impulsive Personality Disorder Analogous Diagnostic Categories Across Psychiatric Nomenclatures? Journal of Personality Disorders, 26, 551-567.
[Abstract] This study examined the validity of the borderline construct which encompasses diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), ICD-10 Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder (EUPD), and CCMD-III Impulsive Personality Disorder (IPD) in a sample of 1,419 Chinese psychiatric patients. Participants completed the Chinese Personality Disorder Inventory and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory-2 assessing various disordered personality features. Adequate internal consistency was found for the borderline construct (α = .83). Exploratory factor analysis revealed two components: (1) affective and cognitive disturbances, and (2) impulse dysregulation, which were replicated by confirmatory factor analysis. Item analysis indicated that the various borderline criteria displayed similar levels of diagnostic efficiency, which does not support the elimination of fear of abandonment and transient psychotic features from the EUPD and IPD criteria set. Findings of this study suggest that BPD, EUPD, and IPD may represent analogous diagnostic categories across classification systems.
Mak, W. W. S., Cheung, F. M., & Leung, F. (2012). Somatoform disorders in Asians. In E. C. Chang (Ed.). Handbook of Adult Psychopathology in Asians: Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. US: Oxford University Press.
Ng, A., Fan, W. Q., Cheung, F. M., Leong, F. T. L., & Cheung, S. F. (2012). The CPAI-2 as a Culturally Relevant Personality Measure in Differentiating among Academic Major Groups”. Journal of Career Assessment, 20, 196-207.
[Abstract] We examined whether the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory-2
(CPAI-2), developed by the combined emic-etic approach, could help us better understand the
relationship between personality and the key academic major groups in the Chinese context.
Our discriminant analysis showed that the personality traits measured by the CPAI-2 could
significantly differentiate among six academic major groups, confirming the utility of
personality variables as predictors of career-relevant choice in non-Western cultures.
Among the 28 CPAI-2 personality scales, seven significantly differentiated the six major
groups in our multivariate analysis of variance. Two of these scales reflect universal
intellectual styles (i.e. Divergent Thinking and Aesthetics) while the other five were relational
in natural. Among these five relationship-oriented scales, Extraversion vs. Introversion and
Leadership correspond to similar etic-constructs in Western measures while the other three
emic-constructs (i.e. Renqing, Social Sensitivity, and Face) could help us differentiate the
personality profiles of college majors in a more precise way.
Zhang, S., Zhou, M., Chen, S., & Zhang, J. (2012). The relationships between indigenous personality trait and job performance: Linear and nonlinear[in Chinese: 本土化人格特質與工作績效的關係: 線性與非線性]. Journal of Psychological Science [心理科學], 35, 1440-1444.
[Abstract] Chinese personality traits have unique differences from other cultures due to China's special geography and collectivist cultural background． Therefore，the philosophy of localization was accepted and advocated by more and more Chinese psychologists． Meanwhile， the nonlinear relationships between personality traits and job performance have been found in some studies． These results transformed the traditional top － down strategy into double strategies for the applications of personality tests in the psychology of personnel management． However，there was no research to combine the linear and nonlinear models to examine the relationships between indigenous personality traits and job performance in the Chinese work setting． In the current study，we explored the linear and /or nonlinear relationships between indigenous personality traits and job performance． The participants were 182 service employees from several service industries in Beijing，and the immediate supervisors of the respondents provided ratings of their job performance and returned independently to the interviewers． The ratings of job performance were self － compiled based on job analysis and in － depth interview． Confirmatory factor analysis found that the one － factor performance model had a better fit ( χ2 = 27． 79，df = 8，CFI = ． 95，NFI = ． 93，RMSEA = ． 07) ，and the coefficient alpha was ． 85． Meanwhile， the nine subscales from CPAI － 2 were selected to assess the indigenous personality traits: face ( FAC) ，family orientation ( FAM) ，defensiveness ( DEF) ，graciousness vs． meanness ( G_M) ，veraciousness vs． slickness ( V_S) ，traditionalism vs． modernity ( T_M) ， renqing ( REN) ，harmony ( HAR) and thrift vs． extravagance ( T_E) ． The mean Cronbach's coefficient for the entire set of personality scales was ． 70 in the representative normal sample in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong． The data were analyzed with SPSS 15． 0，and the main statistical methods were correlation analysis and hierarchical polynomial regression analysis． The results were as follow: ( 1) HAR and job performance had a positive linear relationship( βL = ． 16，p ＜ ． 05) ， the results were similar to the previous studies，and confirmed the importance of harmonious relationship in Chinese culture． ( 2) FAC and job performance had a reversed － U curve relationship( βQ = － ． 22，p ＜ ． 05) ，indicating that compared to those who were low in " face" scores，those scoring high on " face" tended to do well on the job，and therefore were likely to achieve better performance via their personal efforts to 'save face’ through hard work． However，after a certain point ( ZFAC = － ． 07) ，excessively avoiding losing face in advance or mending lost face after the fact may no longer be helpful to score favorably on job performance． ( 3) REN and job performance had a letter U curve relationship ( βQ = ． 15，p ＜ ． 05) ，indicating that the low and high scores on the renqing scales had a better performance． This is not consistent with our expectation，because of the personality traits and job performance usually showed a reversed － U curve in previous studies． The current results may be due to the special status of renqing in Chinese society． In the end， we pointed out that the results should be repeated in different samples and jobs before generalization can be reached．
Zhang, S., Zhou, M., Zhang, J., & Chen, S. (2012). The nonlinear effects of conscientiousness on overall job performance and performance dimensions in the Chinese context. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 231-237.
[Abstract] The relationship between conscientiousness and job performance has been found to be nonlinear in the West, which challenges conceptually and empirically the traditional assumption of the single linear relationship. In this research, we examined the nonlinear effects of conscientiousness on both overall job performance and performance dimensions (i.e., task performance, adaptive performance and contextual performance) in the Chinese context. The results of our two studies supported some evidence for the nonlinear effect of conscientiousness on overall job performance. In addition, it was found that conscientiousness has different (linear or nonlinear) effects on performance dimensions. These findings suggest that the nonlinear effects of conscientiousness on job performance deserve further investigation, and a distinction should be made with regard to job performance in personnel evaluation. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of considering the nonlinear relationship between conscientiousness and performance criteria.
Cheung, F. M., van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leong, F. T. L. (2011). Toward a New Approach to the Study of Personality in Culture. American Psychologist, 66, 593-603. doi: 10.1037/a0022389.
[Abstract] We review recent developments in the study of culture and
personality measurement. Three approaches are described:
an etic approach that focuses on establishing
measurement equivalence in imported measures of personality,
an emic (indigenous) approach that studies personality
in specific cultures, and a combined emic– etic approach
to personality. We propose the latter approach as a
way of combining the methodological rigor of the etic
approach and the cultural sensitivity of the emic approach.
The combined approach is illustrated by two examples: the
first with origins in Chinese culture and the second in South
Africa. The article ends with a discussion of the theoretical
and practical implications of the combined emic– etic approach
for the study of culture and personality and for
psychology as a science.
Fan, W., Cheung, F. M., Zhang, J.X., Cheung, S. F. (2011). Combined Emic-Etic Approach to Personality: CPAI and Cross-Cultural Applications [in Chinese: 兼顧文化共通性與特殊性的人格研究:CPAI及其跨文化應用 ]. Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報], 43(12), 1418-1429.
[Abstract] Since 1970s, major Western personality assessment were translated and applied in different Chinese societies. Although the reliabilities and validities of these imposed-etic measures were largely demonstrated, cultural differences were found at the item, scale and factor levels. These cultural differences have led to attempts to construct indigenous measures to assess personality constructs that are particularly relevant to the Chinese societies. The CPAI was developed with a combined etic-emic approach in the late 1980s. The CPAI includes multidimensional personality scales for normal personality and diagnostic assessment of the Chinese people. To derive emic dimensions, the research team used a bottom-up approach based on multiple inputs from a wide range of daily life experiences, research review, and clinical experiences of local professionals. Reference was made to research results on imported Western instruments in Chinese settings. The CPAI, its revised version, CPAI-2, and the adolescent version, CPAI-A, were developed using vigorous procedures of scale construction, and were standardized on large representative samples across different Chinese regions. Extensive research to validate the CPAI, CPAI-2, and CPAI-A has been undertaken by the CPAI research team and other psychologists in Chinese and cross-cultural settings in Asia, Europe and North America. The personality traits measured by the CPAI inventories have demonstrated validity in predicting external variables such as life satisfaction, marital satisfaction, leadership, work performance, and vocational development, as well in differentiating among psychiatric diagnostic groups. Findings from the CPAI research program highlight the value of a combined emic-etic approach in personality assessment. The Interpersonal Relatedness (IR) factor, as an indigenous Chinese personality dimension, contributed additional variance beyond the universal dimensions of mainstream personality measures in explaining behaviour in both Asian and Western cultures. The added value of the IR factor illustrates the importance of relational personality constructs which fill the gap in Western personality models. On the other hand, the lack of a distinct Chinese openness factor as that found in the Five Factor Model suggested differences in the taxonomy of personality structure across cultures. The CPAI research program aimed not only to establish the reliability and validity of an indigenously derived assessment measure, but also to promote understanding of personality beyond that of a Western-based personality structure in a truly universal model. The CPAI-2 has been translated into six other languages, including Dutch, English, Korean, Japanese, Romanian and Vietnamese. Reliability analysis supported the internal consistence of the subscales of CPAI-2 in cross-cultural settings. Proscrutes rotation of the factor structures of a cross-cultural sample of college students confirmed the congruence and relevance of the emic CPAI-2 personality factor beyond Chinese culture. These results have encouraged us to further examine the cross-cultural validity of the CPAI inventories and the contribution of the combined etic-emic approach to the study of personality in cultural contexts.?
Cheung, F.M., Zhang, J.X., & Cheung, S.F. (2010). From indigenous to cross-cultural personality: The case of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory. In Bond, Michael Harris (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of Chinese psychology. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press, US; pp. 295-308.
[Abstract] (from the chapter) The development of personality assessment in Chinese societies has followed the research trend in cross-cultural psychology, beginning with the importation of Western theories and measures in the early stages. Personality assessment was initially used by the young profession of psychology and its practitioners in clinical and counseling settings to aid diagnostic and treatment decisions, and later in personnel selection and coaching in organizational settings. This chapter discusses personality assessment in China, highlighting the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI ) developed as a joint effort of psychologists at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the late 1980's.
Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2010). The role of meaning in life and optimism in promoting well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 658-663.
[Abstract] This study examined the relationship between meaning in life, optimism and well-being among adolescents. A total of 1807 adolescents in Hong Kong completed inventories that assessed their personality, psychosocial problems and life satisfaction. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that both meaning in life and optimism significantly associated with multidimensional life satisfaction and multidimensional structure of psychosocial problems among adolescents. Optimism also served as a partial mediator in the relationships between meaning in life and both positive and negative aspects of well-being. The mediating role of optimism did not differ across gender.
Gan, Y., & Cheung, F. M. (2010). From proactive personality to organizational citizenship behavior: Mediating role of harmony. Psychological Reports, 106, 755-765. DOI: 10.2466/pr0.106.3.755-765.
[Abstract] The objective of the present study was to examine the moderating role of interpersonal harmony in the relation of proactive personality with organizational citizenship behavior. 158 employees in Chinese state-owned companies completed the Proactive Personality Scale (Bateman & Crant, 1993), Harmony scale, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Questionnaire. Proactive personality had insignificant correlation with job dedication. The correlation between interpersonal facilitation and proactive personality was significant but quite low. Results of the hierarchical regression analyses indicated that when demographic variables were controlled, Harmony had significant moderating effects on the relations of proactive behavior and job dedication/interpersonal facilitation. In the high Harmony group, the correlation between proactive personality and organizational citizenship behavior was significant; whereas in the low Harmony group, this correlation was not significant.
Cheung, F. M. (2009). The cultural perspective of personality assessment. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.）. Oxford handbook of personality assessment. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press, US; pp. 44-56.
[Abstract] (from the chapter) There is now a growing literature on cross-cultural studies in personality and personality assessment. There are also international guidelines for adapting tests for use in various different linguistic and cultural contexts. In this chapter, I review the relationship between culture and personality, and the impact of cultural factors in personality assessment. I discuss the methodological and theoretical issues of personality assessment across cultures, and make recommendations on the training needs for enhancing the cultural perspective in personality assessment.
Cheung, F. M., Fan, W., & To, C. (2009). Teaching and learning guide for: The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory as culturally relevant personality measure in applied settings. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 1113-1119.
[Abstract] This paper introduces the development of the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) as a culturally relevant measure for personality assessment in collectivistic cultures. The CPAI was developed as a joint effort of psychologists at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the late 1980s. In response to the critique of the imposed etic approach in cross-cultural personality assessment, the team considered it timely to develop an indigenous measure suitable for the Chinese people who constituted at least one-fourth of the world’s population. The team built on their experience in the methodology of the adaptation and standardization of the Chinese MMPI to design a comprehensive indigenous instrument covering personality characteristics for normal as well as diagnostic assessment of the Chinese people. In addition to universal personality traits, the CPAI included indigenously derived scales that assessed the relational aspects of personality. The cross-cultural relevance of the CPAI was assessed by examining the convergence and divergence of the CPAI with the NEO PI-R (Costa, & McCrae, 1992) measuring the Five Factor Model, which was claimed to cover universal personality dimensions. A joint factor analysis of the CPAI and the NEO PI-R in both Chinese and Singaporean samples showed that the CPAI factor of Interpersonal Relatedness (IR) did not load on any of the Big Five factors, whereas none of the CPAI scales loaded on the Openness to Experience factor of the NEO PI-R. In the present article, we reported three studies that illustrated the usefulness of these indigenous scales in Chinese organizational settings. The Interpersonal Relatedness factor scales on the CPAI contributed additional value beyond scales from the universal factors of Social Potency and Dependability in profiling MBA students at senior-level positions, in assessing hotel workers’ customer orientation, and in predicting senior executives’ leadership behaviors.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., & Leung, F. (2008). Clinical utility of the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2) in the assessment of substance use disorders among Chinese men. Psychological Assessment, 20 (2), 103-113.
[Abstract] This study examined the clinical utility of the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Inventory (CPAI–2) in differentiating the personality characteristics of Chinese men with substance use disorders from other psychiatric patients and normal control participants. The CPAI–2 profile of 121 Chinese men with substance use disorders was contrasted with that of a matched psychiatric comparison group (n = 172) and a normal comparison group (n = 187). Multivariate analyses of variance and logistic regression results supported the utility of the CPAI–2 clinical scales, especially Pathological Dependence, Antisocial Behavior, and Depression, for assessing substance use disorders. The Pathological Dependence scale (cutoff T score of 64) achieved good sensitivity and specificity. Apart from the universal personality traits related to neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness found in Western studies, the indigenously derived CPAI–2 personality scales, including Family Orientation and Harmony, highlighted deficits in social adjustment and interpersonal relationship as important cultural features in the personality characteristics of these participants. The study provided a cross-cultural extension to research on the relationship between personality and substance use disorders and could assist clinicians in considering culturally relevant treatment approaches.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Zhang, J. X., Leung, K., Leong, F., & Kuang, H. (2008). Relevance of openness as a personality dimension in Chinese culture:Aspects of its cultural relevance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39(1), 81-108.
[Abstract] The Openness factor was missing from the original Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). We used a combined emic–etic approach to generate six culturally relevant Openness scales. In Study 1, the Openness scales were added to the revised CPAI and standardized using a representative sample of 1,911 adults in China and Hong Kong. Factor analysis showed that the Openness scales merged with the original factors of the CPAI. In Study 2, 1,094 Chinese college students took the CPAI-2 and NEO-FFI. Joint factor analyses showed that four of the CPAI-2 Openness scales loaded with the Openness factor of the NEO-FFI. Implications on the meaning of Openness as a personality factor in Chinese culture were discussed.
Cheung，F. M., Fan, W., Cheung, S. F., & Leung, K. (2008). Standardization of the Cross-cultural [Chinese] Personality Assessment Inventory for Adolescents in Hong Kong: A combined emic-etic approach to personality assessment [in Chinese: 跨文化（中國人）個性測量表－青少年版（CPAI－A）的香港標 準化研究 - 兼顧文化共通性與特殊性的人格測量]. Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報] ,40(7), 839-852.
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[Abstract] This study explored two major issues in personality assessment: Cultural universality versus cultural relevance in personality assessment, and the stability and change of personality structure from adolescence to adulthood. Current personality theories and assessment have focused on adults. Growing interests in adolescent mental health and the emerging field of life - span personality development have led to an expansion of app roaches in the personality assessment of adolescents. Early experiences in cross - cultural assessment showed that the importation of well - established and comprehensive Western personality inventories for adults and adolescents provided local psychologists with a wealth of research database for their applications. However, the “import and test”app roach has been criticized for the imposition of universal (etic) personality dimensions and the inadequate attention paid to indigenous (emic) personality dimensions that would provide a fuller understanding of personality in the local context. In the context of personality assessment in Chinese culture, the emic-etic debate focuses on two questions: 1) Are imposed etic personality dimensions universally applicable? 2) Are there dimensions that are important in the understanding of personality in the local culture that are left out by the Western measures?
The Cross - cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPA I - 2) was developed using a combined emic-etic app roach to cover both universal and indigenous personality constructs. This paper reported the standardization study of the Cross - cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory Adolescent Version (CPA I - A). The normative sample consisted of 2, 646 students ( 1446 females, 1200 males) from 21 secondary schools and 43 non – student adolescents (13 females, 30males) from 11 youth centers in Hong Kong. The ages of the total sample ranged from 12 to
18 (M = 15. 23, SD = 1. 72 ) . The internal consistency and test - retest reliability of the CPA I - A scales were examined in the study. The factor structure of the CPA I - A was tested through both EFA and CFA procedures.
The results indicated that the CPA I - A was statistically reliable among adolescents in Hong Kong. The factor structure of personality measured by the CPA I - A included four factors for the 25 normal personality scales ( Social Potency/Expansiveness, Emotional Stability, Interpersonal Relatedness, and Dependability) , and two factors for the 14 clinical scales ( Emotional Problem and Behavioral Problem) . Through a comparison between the CPA I - 2 and CPA I - A, we reported the changes in the scales included in the adolescent version, and investigated the similarities and differences in personality structure between adolescence and adulthood. The results basically supported the stability of personality structure from adolescence to adulthood. However, there were specific personality features which distinguished adolescents from adults.
The CPA I - A provides a comprehensive instrument for normal and clinical assessment of adolescents in the Chinese cultural context. The contributions of the combined emic-etic approach adopted in the development of the CPA I - A over traditional methods of personality assessment were demonstrated in the study.
[摘要] 以跨文化(中國人)個性測量表的成人版(CPA I - 2)為基礎,綜合運用文化共通性(etic)和文化特殊性( emic)方法發展了相應的青少年版個性測量工具— CPA I - A,並在香港青少年人群中進行了標準化研究。結果表明CPA I - A有良好的信度和清晰的因素結構。文章從理論和實證兩方面深入分析了學界日益關注的從青少年到成人人格的發展性與穩定性問題,以及人格特質評估的文化共通性與特殊性問題。最後建議CPA I - A量表發展的歷程可能是融合本土化與跨文化人格評估發展過程中一條非常值得借鑒的思路。
Cheung, F. M., Fan, W., & To, C. (2008).The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory as a culturally relevant personality measure in applied settings. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 74-89.
[Abstract] This paper introduces the development of the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) as a culturally relevant measure for personality assessment in collectivistic cultures. In addition to universal personality traits, the CPAI included indigenously derived scales that assessed the relational aspects of personality. We reported three studies that illustrated the usefulness of these indigenous scales in Chinese organizational settings. The Interpersonal Relatedness factor scales on the CPAI contributed additional value beyond scales from the universal factors of Social Potency and Dependability in profiling MBA students at senior-level positions, in assessing hotel workers’ customer orientation, and in predicting senior executives’ leadership behaviors.
Fan, W., Cheung, F. M, Cheung, S. F., & Leung, K. (2008). Gender difference of personality traits among Hong Kong secondary school students and their developmental analyses [in Chinese: 香港中學生人格特質的性別差異及其發展性分析]. Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報], 40(9), 1002-1012.
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[Abstract] Gender difference has been studied extensively in the field of personality. Many studies have demonstrated significant gender difference in personality traits (e.g., self-esteem, extraversion) among people from different age groups and cultural contexts. Although the stabilities and changes of personality structure from adolescence to adulthood have also been investigated, few studies have explored gender difference in personality traits from a developmental perspective.
This paper compared gender difference in the Cross-cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory -- Adolescent Version (CPAI-A) among three age groups of secondary school students in Hong Kong. The CPAI-A was based on the adult version of the CPAI-2 which was developed using a combined emic-etic approach. The participants were 2,506 (1135 males, 1371 females) Hong Kong secondary school students aged 12 to 18 (M=15.25, SD=1.72) drawn from a representative sample of secondary schools. The participants were divided into three age groups which corresponded to the phases of the secondary school system in Hong Kong: 12-14 years, 15-16 years, and 17-18 years. We used MANOVA to examine the overall group differences, followed by further univariate analysis to examine the specific gender difference in personality traits among three age groups.
The results indicated that gender was a key factor that contributed to group difference in personality traits among secondary school students in Hong Kong. Three typical developmental features of gender difference in personality traits were found: (1) There were consistent gender differences in some general and clinical personality traits across the three groups. For example, male students scored significantly higher on the scales of Enterprise, Optimism vs. Pessimism, Ah-Q Mentality, and Antisocial Behavior than did their females counterparts. (2) An increasing or decreasing trend was observed for some general and clinical personality traits. For instance, gender differences in Leadership, Ren Qing, and Alienation increased with age, but those in Discipline and Family Orientation, and Depression decreased from lower age group to higher group. (3) Changing patterns of gender differences were observed in some general personality traits. For example, a “V” curve of gender difference in Novelty and Graciousness vs. Meanness was found with significant gender difference observed in the 12-14 age group and again in the 17-18 age group, but insignificant in the middle age group (15-16 years).
Given the continuity between the CPAI-2 and the CAPI-A which was developed based on the CPAI-2 (adult version), patterns of gender difference in personality found in the CPAI-A were also compared with those found in adults from the CPAI-2 standardization study. The stabilities and changes in the development of gender difference across different age groups of secondary school students and from adolescence to adulthood were discussed. The study highlighted the development of gender difference as one of the important aspects in personality development.
[摘要] 本文報告了新近發展的跨文化（中國人）個性測量表－青少年版（CPAI-A）對香港中學生人格特徵的性別差異評估結果。CPAI-A是在CPAI-2（成人版）基礎上發展而來的。研究發現性別是影響香港中學生人格特質的關鍵因素，並且性別差異在不同年齡組之間存在明顯的延續性和發展性趨勢。結合對已有研究的比較分析，文章從發展角度討論了人格特質的性別差異特性在青少年不同年齡組之間的情形。文章還基於CPAI-2中國人常模的資料，比較分析了青少年與成人之間人格特徵性別差異的特點。文章最後認為性別差異特徵是體現人格特質在青少年期的不同年齡階段，以及從青少年到成人階段的發展性與穩定性的重要內容。
Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2008). Personality and life events as predictors of adolescents’ life satisfaction: Do life events mediate the link between personality and life satisfaction? Social Indicators Research, 89 (3), 457-471.
[Abstract] This study examined the association among personality traits, life events and life satisfaction, and the underlying pathways from personality traits to life satisfaction. A total of 1,961 adolescents were recruited from 21 secondary schools in Hong Kong. The adolescent version of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-A), the Chinese Adolescent Life Events Checklist (CALEC) and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) were employed to assess their personality, life events and life satisfaction, respectively. Multiple regression analysis showed there was an additional value of the indigenously derived scales of CPAI-A, including the Family Orientation, Harmony and Ren-Qing scales, in predicting life satisfaction beyond the universal personality traits. Results also indicated that there was a partial mediation effect of negative life events on personality traits in the prediction of life satisfaction.
Cheung, F. M. (2007). Indigenous personality correlates from the CPAI-2 profiles of Chinese psychiatric patients. World Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, 2(4), 114-117.
[Abstract] This paper reports on the clinical validity of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2) based on a large-scale research project involving different diagnostic categories of psychiatric patients in Mainland China and Hong Kong. CPAI has been developed as a culturally-relevant instrument to assess Chinese personality. This report focuses particularly on culture-related personality correlates of psychiatric disorders that have not been covered in Western personality measures.
Zhou, M., & Zhang, J. (2007). Social development and the changes of Chinese people’s personalities. Advances in Psychological Science, 15, 203-210.
[Abstract] The present study is aimed at exploring the relationship between the social transformation and personality changes of Chinese people by using so-called indigenous personality measurement of CPAI (Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory). Two sets of CPAI data collected in a 10 year interval were analyzed. At the same time, the CPAI-2 data was analyzed in terms of modernization level of various cities from which the data were collected. It was found in the study that Chinese personality traits do have some changes with the development of social transformation and with the level of modernization. Chinese people tend to be more individualized and open-minded. Besides, the results of the study also suggest that anyone who wants to study the relationship of social change and personality, he must consider both development status and level of modernization of participants’ residence.
Chen, S. X., Cheung, F. M., Bond, M. H., & Leung, J. P. (2006). Going beyond self-esteem to predict life satisfaction: The Chinese case. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9(1), 24-35.
[Abstract] The present study examined three fundamental components contributing to life satisfaction among Chinese college students ? who you are, how you conceive of yourself, and how you understand the world in which you function. To account for life satisfaction beyond self-esteem, we used two comprehensive measures of personality and social beliefs that have recently established their cross-cultural applicability: the Cross-Cultural Personality Assessment Inventory and the Social Axioms Survey. It was found that the personality variables tapping interpersonal relationship and social axioms tapping perceptions of social contexts were significantly related to life satisfaction over and above its relationship to self-esteem. These and other constructs were discussed as emic and possibly pancultural contributors to subjective well-being.
Chen, S. X., Bond, M. H., & Cheung, F. M. (2006). Personality correlates of social axioms: Are beliefs nested within personality? Personality and Individual Differences, 40(3), 509-519.
[Abstract] Some of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Societal Practices scales ask for descriptions of typical personality traits that might be interpreted as judgments of national character. Ratings of national character reflect cultural identities and social dynamics, but previous research suggests that they are unrelated to the mean personality traits of the culture's members. Analyses at the culture level comparing GLOBE scales with aggregate assessed personality traits (n = 34) and with measures of perceived national character (n = 33) showed that these GLOBE scales are better construed as unfounded stereotypes than as actual depictions of the society members' personality traits.
Cheung, S. F., Cheung, F. M., Howard, R., & Lim, Y. H. (2006). Personality across ethnic divide in Singapore: Are “Chinese traits” uniquely Chinese? Personality and Individual Differences, 41(3), 467-477.
[Abstract] In this study, the English version of the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory-2 (CPAI-2) was administered to three samples representing the main ethnic groups in Singapore: Chinese (N = 211), Malays (N = 163), and Indians (N = 76), with the aims of (i) replicating the factor structure of the CPAI-2; (ii) comparing the scale scores of the whole Singaporean sample with a Chinese normative sample from China; and (iii) comparing the scores of the three ethnic groups with each other. Factor analysis and Procrustes rotation showed that the four CPAI-2 factors, Social Potency, Dependability, Accommodation, and Interpersonal Relatedness, could generally be recovered. Comparing group level means, some scales (e.g., Diversity, Divergent thinking, Optimism/Pessimism, Meticulousness, Locus of Control, Interpersonal Tolerance) showed commonalities across Singaporeans, in contradistinction to Chinese norm. Some scales, including some supposed to reflect traditional Chinese values, showed differences among the Singaporean ethnic groups, with non-Chinese Singaporeans endorsing Chinese values more than Chinese Singaporeans. Finally, issues for future research are discussed.
Xu, Q., Zhang, J., Liu, B., Wang, J., & Wang, B. (2006). The condition of learning burnout of the students of medium vocational school and the correlation to personality traits. Chinese Journal of Behavioral Medical Science, 15, 367-369.
[Abstract] Objective To acquaint the condition of learning-burnout of the students of medium vocational school and analysis the correlation of learning-burnout and personality traits. Methods The learning burnout scale,composed of items from MBI-SS and interview with students, along with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CAPI), was used to assess 604 students from two schools in Beijing,and the ANOVA analysis was done to variables.Results Total and every fact of learning-burnout scored different significantly in gender, whether or not acting as managers from pupils, grades, the educated level of mother, ages of the leader of class and whether or not taking the lead in class about learn achieves in class.Students of high learning-burnout and every factor of learning-burnout scored higher on Neuroticism(3.20±0.53), Face(8.98±3.10)and Defensiveness(7.25±2.84)than those of low learning-burnout and every factor of student-burnout(2.78±0.59,7.20±3.25,5.88±3.17), lower on Extraversion(3.22±0.51), open(2.76±0.35), Agreeableness(3.24±0.46), Conscientiousness(3.13±0.47)and Harmony(9.96±2.69) than those of low learning-burnout and every factor of learning-burnout(3.50±0.51,2.94±0.36,3.50±0.45,3.61± 0.61,11.20±2.04). Conclusion More attention should be pay to the students of profession school about learning- burnout.
Zhang, J., & Zhou, M. (2006). Searching for a personality structure of Chinese: A theoretical hypothesis of a six factor model of personality traits [in Chinese: 中國人人格探索——人格特質六因素假說]. Advances in Psychological Science [心理科學進展], 14, 574-585.
[Abstract] Finding a latent structure for personality traits has been consistently one of the focuses in personality research, while finding empirical evidence of culture-general or culture-specific nature for a personality structure is at present one of the important topics in personality research. Therefore, it can be seen that there have disputation over the number of factors (or dimensions) for such a personality structure, and over the adaptability of a structure from one culture to people of another culture. The present paper summarizes various findings resulted from a series of studies on CPAI (Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory) over the past period of 20 years to put forward a Six Factor Model (SFM). Based on the responses to IR and O factor of SFM from the samples of Chinese and American, the paper therefore suggest that the number of factors and culture-specific nature in any of the existing personality structures be only meaningful in terms of methodology and epistemology adopted by its researchers. The only way to find a personality structure of culture-general or culture-specific is to let personality psychologists of many cultural backgrounds work together equally.
Chen, S. X., Cheung, F. M., Bond, M. H. & Leung, J. P. (2005). Decomposing the construct of ambivalence over emotional expression in a Chinese cultural context. European Journal of Personality, 19(3), 185-204.
[Abstract] The present study examined the construct of ambivalence over emotional expression proposed by King and Emmons (1990) in the Chinese context, and identified a factor structure different from those proposed in previous Western studies. The results of this study provided discriminant validity for this newly extracted two-factor structure of ambivalence, viz., Emotional Rumination and Emotional Suppression. Emotional Rumination was significantly predicted by the personality scales of introversion and inferiority, and the belief dimension of fate control, whereas Emotional Suppression was predicted by the personality scales of diversity, face, and harmony, and the belief dimension of social complexity. The different effects of Emotional Rumination and Emotional Suppression in predicting life satisfaction showed that emotional experience has its own specific characteristics in Chinese culture, and that responding to its emic characteristics will yield a more culturally responsive understanding of emotional experience and expression. Copyright c 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cheung, F. M., Gan, Y. Q., & Lo, P. M. (2005). Personality and psychopathology: Insights from Chinese studies. In W. S. Tseng (Ed.). Asian Culture and Psychotherapy: Implications for East and West (pp. 21-39). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
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[From the Chapter] Personality has been closely associated with psychopathology in the field of clinical psychology. Clinicians can benefit from understanding "the enduring emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and motivational styles" of a patient in "formulating a diagnosis, establishing rapport, developing insight, anticipating the course of therapy, and selecting the optimal form of treatment for the patient" (Costa and McCrae, 1992, 11, 5). Cross-cultural studies of psychopathology recognize the importance of the sociocultural contexts that affect individuals' manifestations of abnormal behavior. Studies of Chinese personality and Chinese psychopathology have highlighted culturally relevant characteristics that affect treatment. In this chapter, we review issues in cross-cultural personality assessment and introduce the culture-specific personality traits identified by an indigenously derived personality measure, the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory. We summarize specific cultural dimensions identified in Chinese illness behavior and Chinese personality attributes. We also relate these cultural characteristics to considerations in psychotherapy with Chinese patients.
Cheung, F. M. (2004). Use of Western and Indigenously Developed Personality Tests in Asia. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(2), 173-191.
[Abstract] This paper reviews the cross-cultural research on major personality measures in Asian countries, including the MMPI, EPQ, STAI, and the NEO-PI-R. Considerations in the cross-cultural application of translated tests are discussed. The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) is cited as an example of indigenous measures that have identified culturally salient or unique dimensions. Although developed originally as a culturally relevant assessment tool for Chinese people, the CPAI has also become a means to examine the universality of Western personality theories. The unique Interpersonal Relatedness factor of the CPAI is useful to the study of an aspect of personality that has been absent in imported personality measures. Future challenges for research and applications of personality assessment in Asia are discussed.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., & Zhang, J. X. (2004). Convergent validity of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2: Preliminary findings with a normative sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82(1), 92-103.
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[Abstract] We examined the convergent validity of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI; Cheung, Leung, et al., 1996), an indigenously constructed measure, by comparing its patterns of correlations with the MMPI–2 (Butcher et al., 2001). A valid sample of 147 Chinese students took both the CPAI and the MMPI–2. Results provide preliminary support for the convergence between most of the CPAI clinical scales and the relevant MMPI–2 scales. The CPAI personality scales further illustrated the patterns of personality features associated with the MMPI–2 scales in a Chinese cultural context. We discuss discrepancies in the correspondence between a number of CPAI and MMPI–2 clinical scales.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., & Zhang, J. X. (2004). What is "Chinese" personality?: Subgroup differences in the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2). Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報], 36(4), 491-499.
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[Abstract] The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) is an indigenously developed personality measure, which covers both universal and culture specific personality dimensions. We argue that a combined emic etic approach reflects the broader psychological reality and is a useful approach to advance our understanding of psychology cross culturally. We examine subgroup differences in the CPAI 2 normative sample to illustrate variations and continuity of personality characteristics within the same culture. Sex and age differences on mean scores of the CPAI-2 scales are consistent with expected variations associated socialization and developmental stages. There is no consistent pattern of variations across Hong Kong and different geographical regions within Mainland China. Within culture and cross-cultural differences illustrate the continuity of individual differences in personality, and the dialectics of emic and etic constructs.
Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2003). Measuring Personality and Values Across Cultures: Imported Versus Indigenous Measures. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 4(4). http://dx.doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1042.
[Abstract] Cross-cultural studies of personality have shown cultural similarities and differences in the manifestation of personality traits. In interpreting cultural differences in personality traits, we should consider not only the experiences of people in different cultures, but also the measures adopted and the cultural orientations of researchers themselves. In this chapter, we discuss the considerations in adapting an instrument from one culture to another culture. We illustrate the alternative approach of developing an indigenous personality measure in the Chinese culture.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Leung, K., Ward, C., & Leong, F. (2003). The English version of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(4), 433-452.
[Abstract] The article examines the structure of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI), an indigenous Chinese assessment instrument, in two English-speaking samples. In Study 1, the English version of the CPAI was developed and administered to a sample of 675 Singaporean Chinese. Factor analysis showed that the factor structure of the English version CPAI was similar to the structure of the original Chinese version in the normative sample. Joint factor analysis of the English version CPAI and the NEO-FFI showed that the Interpersonal Relatedness factor of the CPAI was not covered by the NEO-FFI, whereas the Openness domain of the NEO-FFI was not covered by the CPAI. In Study 2, the English version CPAI was administered to a Caucasian American sample. The factor structure was similar to those of the Singaporean sample and Chinese normative sample. The implications of administering the CPAI in non-Chinese cultures are discussed.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Wada, S., & Zhang, J. X. (2003). Indigenous measures of personality assessment in Asian countries: A review. Psychological Assessment, 15(3), 280-289.
[Abstract] This article reviews attempts to develop multidimensional personality measures in Asia and their applications in clinical assessment. Indigenous personality assessment measures in India, Korea, Japan, the Philippines, and Taiwan are examined. These early attempts have not yielded a comprehensive personality measure that integrates a theoretical framework and an empirical program of validation. The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) is cited as an example to illustrate the process of developing an indigenous measure that meets the testing standards of established assessment instruments.On the basis of the research findings from the CPAI, the authors discuss the relevance of indigenous measures in clinical assessment in native cultures as well as in informing mainstream personality assessment.
Cheung, F. M., Kwong, J. Y. Y., & Zhang, J. X. (2003). Clinical validation of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). Psychological Assessment,15(1), 89-100.
[Abstract] The clinical validity of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI; F. M. Cheung, K. Leung, et al., 1996) was examined in 2 studies involving a group of 167 male prisoners in Hong Kong and a group of 339 psychiatric patients in China. Elevated scores on the clinical scales were obtained for the clinical samples. Logistic regression analyses confirmed that the CPAI scales were useful in differentiating between male prisoners and the Hong Kong male normative sample and between psychiatric patients and a random sample of normal adults in China. Multivariate analyses of variance results showed significant differences on the CPAI clinical scales and personality scales among subgroups of psychiatric patients with diagnoses of bipolar, schizophrenic, and neurotic disorders. The usefulness of an indigenous personality inventory is discussed.
Cheung, F. M., Leong, F. & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (2003). Psychological assessment in Asia: Introduction to the special section. Psychological Assessment, 15(3), 243-247.
[Abstract] Psychological assessment with Asians is an important topic not only for psychologists from Asian countries but also for psychologists in multicultural societies with large populations of ethnic Asians. There is a dearth of information in the English language literature on psychological assessment for Asians. This special section is organized to review various forms of psychological assessment in Asia. The objectives of the special section are to inform test users and researchers of the issues related to cross-cultural validity of psychological assessment in Asia and to introduce examples of adapted and indigenously developed instruments that are culturally appropriate.
Kwong, J. Y. Y., & Cheung, F. M. (2003). Prediction of performance facets using specific personality traits in the Chinese context. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 99-110.
[Abstract] Recent research has shown that the contextual domain of job performance could be divided into an interpersonal and a personal facet. This study examined how personality variables relate differentially to these two distinct facets. Supervisory-level employees (N = 187) completed the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI, Cheung et al., 1996) and provided their recent performance appraisal records. Results indicated that personality traits that relate to interpersonal orientation (e.g., Harmony and Leadership in the CPAI) better predict interpersonal versus personal contextual behaviors, whereas a trait associated with personal virtues such as moral obligation and loyalty to group (e.g., CPAI’ s Veraciousness) predicts the personal but not the interpersonal domain. These results extend previous research findings that personality variables are valid predictors of the contextual domain of job performance, and demonstrate that the same personality variable differs in levels of predictive validity depending on the foci of the contextual behaviors. c 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
Cheung, F. M. (2002). Universal and indigenous dimensions of Chinese personality. In K. S. Kurasaki, S. Okazaki, & S. Sue (Eds.). Asian American Mental Health, 141-157. NY: Kluwer Academic.
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[Abstract] One of the early cross-cultural studies on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (S. Sue & D. W. Sue, 1974) showed that Asian American students using a psychiatric clinic had higher scale elevations on the MMPI than non-Asian students. Twenty years later, similar findings were obtained. The MMPI- 2 profiles of Asian American students showed more somatic complaints, depression, anxiety, and isolation than their Caucasian counterparts (S. Sue, K. Keefe, Enomoto, Durvasula, & Chao, 1996). There may be different interpretations of this finding. First, Asian American students were more prone to psychopathology. Alternatively, the elevated scores on the MMPI scales may be less a reflection of the problems of the students than those of the MMPI itself.
Gan, Y. Q., Cheung, F. M., Wan X. A., & Sun, Z. X. (2002). Predicting Work Performance of Middle and Top Managers of State-owned Enterprise Using the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) [in Chinese: 用中國人個性量表(CPAI)預測國有企業中高層管理者的績效]. Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology [應用心理學] , 8(3), 35-39.
[Abstract] The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory(CPAI) was administered to 38 middle and top managers in state-owned enterprise.The performance data of the managers were collected with the method of supervisory assessment.Correlation analysis showed that the variable of harmony of CPAI was positively correlated with the measures of work ability and work attitude,and the leadership was positively correlated with communication ability.However,the variables of veraciousness-slickness and practical-mindedness were found to have negative correlation with communication ability.The externally controlled subjects were found to be more cooperative in the appraisal data than the internally controlled.The results suggested the importance of some personality dimensions in the personnel selection of managers for enterprises.
[摘要] 本研究用中國人個性量表(CPAI) 測量了某國有企業的38 名中高級管理人員,並獲得了他們最近的上司評定績效資料。相關分析表明,CPAI 的和諧維度與工作能力和工作態度的多個指標有正相關,CPAI 的領導維度與溝通能力有正相關。與假設相反,老實- 圓滑和務實與溝通能力有負相關;越外控的員工,其合作態度的評價越高。這可能表明了國企管理的某些特點對人格—績效關係的影響。本研究揭示了一些被西方心理學家忽視的人格維度對於中國企業人力資源管理的重要意義。
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Zhang, J. X., Sun, H. F., Gan, Y. Q., Song, W. Z., & Xie, D. (2001). Indigenous Chinese personality construct: Is the Five Factor Model complete? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(4), 407-433.
[Abstract] The universality and sufficiency of the five-factor model in the Chinese context were investigated. In Study 1, analysis of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) taken by Chinese students showed four joint factors similar to the domains of the NEO-PI-R. Two unique factors were obtained. The Interpersonal Relatedness factor was defined only by CPAI scales. The Openness domain, however, was not represented in the CPAI scales. In Study 2, involving Chinese managers, the robustness of the Interpersonal Relatedness factor was demonstrated. In Study 3, the
six-factor model was confirmed with Hawaiian students. Further analyses showed that the six-factor models were superior to the five-factor models and that the Interpersonal Relatedness scales could not be consistently explained by a combination of the Big Five factors. Implications for the universality of the five-factor model and the cross-cultural relevance of the CPAI Interpersonal Relatedness factor are discussed.
Yung, Y. F., Chan, W., Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Law, J. S., & Zhang, J. X. (2000). Standardization of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory: The prototype standardization method and its rationale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3(2), 133-152.
[Abstract] Methods and techniques for the standardization of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) are reviewed and discussed. Based on the idea of the UT transformation (Tellegen & Ben-Porath, 1992), a general method called prototype standardization is applied to the clinical scales as well as the personality scales of the CPAI. The rationale of the prototype standardization method is explained. Some variations of the basic methodology are suggested and applied to the CPAI. It is demonstrated that the prototype standardization of the CPAI yields desirable psychometric properties such as percentile comparability across scales and preservation of the correlation structures of the scales, even for the personality scales of the CPAI that do not have a homogeneous distributional shape. We conclude that prototype standardization is a useful method for standardizing all kinds of personality inventories consisting of a large number of scales.
Cheung, F. M. & Leung, K. (1998). Indigenous personality measures: Chinese examples. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 29(1), 233 - 248.
[Abstract] The universality and sufficiency of the five-factor model in the Chinese context were investigated. In Study 1, analysis of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) taken by Chinese students showed four joint factors similar to the domains of the NEO-PI-R. Two unique factors were obtained. The Interpersonal Relatedness factor was defined only by CPAI scales. The Openness domain, however, was not represented in the CPAI scales. In Study 2, involving Chinese managers, the robustness of the Interpersonal Relatedness factor was demonstrated. In Study 3, the
six-factor model was confirmed with Hawaiian students. Further analyses showed that the six-factor models were superior to the five-factor models and that the Interpersonal Relatedness scales could not be consistently explained by a combination of the Big Five factors. Implications for the universality of the five-factor model and the cross-cultural relevance of the CPAI Interpersonal Relatedness factor are discussed.
Hill, J., Stuart, R.C., Fung, H. K., Ng, E. K. W., Cheung, F. M., Chung, S. C. S., & Hasselt, A. (1997). Gastroesophageal reflux, motility disorders, and psychological profiles in the etiology of globus pharynges. The Laryngoscope, 107 (10), 1373-1377.
[Abstract] The aim of this study was to investigate the origin of globus pharyngis with particular reference to esophageal disorders such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), motility disorders, structural abnormalities, other gastrointestinal tract diseases, and psychological profile. Previous studies on this subject using 24-hour pH monitoring give conflicting results and are hampered by the high background prevalence of asymptomatic GERD in the normal Western population. The local Chinese population is known to have a very low background level of GERD and therefore is an ideal study population. Twenty-six patients with globus pharyngis underwent 24-hour ambulatory pH monitoring, esophageal manometry, and esophagogas-troduodenoscopy with lower esophageal biopsy. A control group of 20 patients presenting with non-ulcer dyspepsia was similarly investigated. Personality profiles of the globus pharyngis subjects and an appropriate control group were assessed. Eight of the globus pharyngis group (30.7%) had evidence of GERD, whereas only one of the controls (5%) demonstrated GERD on 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring (P < 0.05). The manometric and personality profile studies did not show significant differences between study and control groups. We concluded that the finding of GERD in patients with globus pharyngis is not a coincidental finding but that there is a true association between GERD and globus pharyngis. (C) The American Laryngological, Rhinological & Otalogical Society, Inc.
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Fan, R. M., Song, W., Zhang, J., & Zhang, J. (1996). Development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 181-199.
[Abstract] A combined "emic-etic" approach was adopted to develop an indigenous omnibus personality inventory for the Chinese people. The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) consists of constructs selected specifically in consideration of the Chinese culture as well as scales covering personality constructs commonly found in English-language psychological tests. Preliminary results confirmed the robust structure of the scales related to Chinese tradition among random samples of subjects in the People's Republic of China and in Hong Kong. This article reports the psychometric properties of the CPAI. It also outlines the steps in the construction of the CPAI, which adapted personality assessment methods used in Western countries for developing a culturally relevant instrument in a non-Western culture. The methodology provides an example for the development of indigenous personality inventories in other non-Western cultures.
Cheung, F. M., Zhang, J. X., &apm; Song, W. Z. (1996). Chinese personality seen through psychological tests: (1) Use of tests. [in Chinese: 從心理測驗看華人的性格 : (一) 量表的運用] In W.S. Tseng (Ed.). Chinese psychology and therapy 《華人心理與治療》. (pp. 89-123). Taipei, Taiwan: Laureate Book.
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[摘要] 心理學中的人格測驗，特別是問卷式人格測驗的基本出發點就在於，它假設人格是可以進行客觀化研究的，並且是能夠進行數量化測量的。人格測驗的使用者，無論他們對人格所持的理論觀點有多大的差距，在一點上卻是相同的，即都試圖利用人格測驗這種客觀化、數量化的工具來描述社會成員的個體差異，尋找多姿多彩人格個體差異背後的共同結構或共同規律，並比較此一社會群體同彼一社會群體，此一文化同彼一文化中社會成員人格結構或規律的異同。
Song, W. Z., Cheung, F. M., & Xie, D. (1996). Chinese personality seen through psychological tests: (2) Test results. [in Chinese: 從心理測驗看華人的性格 : (二) 測量結果 ]. In W.S. Tseng (Ed.). Chinese psychology and therapy 《華人心理與治療》. (pp. 125-146). Taipei, Taiwan: Laureate Book.
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[摘要] 性格測驗是心理測驗的主要組成部分，它是通過調查一個人的外部行為表現來了解其內在穩定的性格特徵。根據人格的特質理論，個體的性格應具有跨情景的相似性和穩定性，也就是說在不同的情景下，個體的某些性格特徵所表現出來的對事物的反應方式具有一定的相似性，而且某種特徵一旦形成，在相對長時間內也表現出一定的穩定性。因此通過性格測驗，我們可以了解一個人有別於其他人的特徵。但實際上，性格的形成是一個十分複雜的過程，它不僅受遺傳、進化等因素的影響，也受到社會環境、文化背景及歷史條件的影響。人格心理學比較強調對性格的個體差異的研究，但如果我們著重於環境對性格的影響，並從群體的角度來加以考慮時，便會遇到這樣一個問題：在某一相同的文化背景和社會環境下的群體在性格上是否具有一定的相似性？或者說不同文化（或亞文化）背景和社會環境，是否在其相應的群體之間表現出性格上的差異？
Song, W. Z., Zhang, J. X., Zhang, J. P., Cheung F. M. & Leung, K. (1993). The significance and process of developing Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) [in Chinese: 編制中國人個性測量表 (CPAI) 的意義與程序]. Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報], 25(4), 400-407.
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[Abstract] Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) was developed and colla-borated by the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Department of Psychology of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, which was strictly studied using the method of constructing personality scale. The development of the CPAI included the following four steps: a) establishment of the constructs to be measured by personality and clinical scales; b) generation of scale items; c) construction of the CPAI; d) standardization of the CPAI. The final inventory consisted of 22 personality scales, 12 clinical scales and an infrequency scale (35 scales and 510 items in total). Through practical examination and statistical analysis, it was shown that CPAI had high reliability and validity and could be used in many fields in China.
[摘要] 從1990年開始中國科學院心理研究所與香港中文大學心理系合作,編制“中國人個性測量表”(CPAI)。編制方法嚴格按照個性測驗編制程序進行。共分四個步驟,一、建立正常與病態個性量表的框架。二、構成量表的項目。三、測量表的最后確定。四、量表的標準化工作。編制出的測量表共包括22個正常個性量表,12個病態個性量表及2個效度量表,共510個項目。經實踐檢驗與統計分析,證明該測量表具有一定的信度與效度。
Publication by Other Researchers:
Chiu, C., Chia, S. I., & Wan, W. W. N. (2015). Measures of cross-cultural values, personality and beliefs. In G. J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.). Personality and Social Psychological Constructs, 621-651.
[Abstract] Culture plays an important role in solving complex social coordination problems. To avoid cutthroat competitions among individuals striving to maximize their personal fitness, members of the society negotiate and agree on the way to make sense of the reality and on the human qualities or behaviors that are socially desirable and allowed. These consensual views are integral parts of a culture. Given the social significance of culture, many measures have been constructed to capture cultural differences along major psychological dimensions. The present review covers the psychometric properties of the measures that were developed to study cultural variations in personality, social beliefs, values, and perceived norms in the society and its residents. Although many measures have been used in cross-cultural studies (e.g., measures of self-esteem, locus of control, the Big 5 personality trait constructs), these measures were not developed to capture cultural differences in human psychology and are therefore not included in the present review. The measures reviewed here are the Value System Module, the Schwartz Value Survey, the World Values Survey, the GLOBE Cultural Values, Measure of the Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism, the Cultural Orientation Scale, the Cross-cultural Personality Assessment Inventory, the Social Axioms Survey, and the Tightness and Looseness Scale. Instead of providing a comprehensive survey of all cross-cultural measures, the present review aims at illustrating representative measures that are recently developed to capture different aspects of cultural differences.
Wu, L. Z., Roche, M. J., Dowgwillo, E. A., Wang, S., & Pincus, A. L. (2015). A Chinese Translation of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems–Short Circumplex. Journal of personality assessment, 97(2), 153-162.
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[Abstract] The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems-Short Circumplex (IIP-SC) is a self-report measure of subjective distress linked to behavioral excesses and inhibitions in social relationships. The IIP-SC exhibits circumplex structure reflecting the underlying dimensions of dominance-submissiveness and warmth-coldness. We translated the IIP-SC into Mandarin Chinese using rigorous translation and back-translation methods with independent native speakers. University students in the People's Republic of China (N = 401) completed the translated IIP-SC and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2), an omnibus measure of indigenous personality trait dimensions and symptoms of psychopathology. The circumplex structure of the Chinese IIP-SC was confirmed using principal components analysis, a randomization test for hypothesized order relations, and confirmatory circumplex analysis. The validity of the Chinese IIP-SC was evaluated by examining its associations with the CPAI-2 scales. Validity evidence for Chinese translation of the IIP-SC extends its use for clinical assessment to native Chinese speakers, although ongoing work to improve its reliability is needed..
Braje, S.E. & Hall, G.C. (2014). Assessing Personality Using Self-Report Measures with Asians and Asian Americans. Guide to Psychological Assessment with Asians, 2014, 135-152.
[Abstract] The reliability and validity of commonly used personality self-report measures have been investigated among different Asian groups internationally, but there is a dearth of studies among Asian-Americans living in the USA. There is a long-standing debate about whether personality is universal or culturally dependent. Research suggests that personality may have both features. Although measures such as the NEO-PI-R and the MMPI have demonstrated cross-cultural robustness, indigenous and combined indigenous-universal measures have also shown good fit among different Asian populations. There are a number of factors that may affect the stability and interpretability of existing measures. Self-report bias may reduce the validity and reliability of self-report measures. The influence of culture on self-perception may also reduce predictive validity. This chapter will review important considerations when utilizing self-report personality measures for Asian/Asian-American populations.
Ha, C. & Sharp, C. (2014). Personality Disorder Assessment in Asian Americans Guide to Psychological Assessment with Asians, 2014, 261-277.
[Abstract] This chapter provides an overview of the Asian American population and sociocultural influences associated with personality disorder assessment. First, a general overview of Asian American demographics and relevant sociocultural factors is presented. Then issues related to cross-cultural assessment of personality disorders are provided, along with recommendations for culturally sensitive assessments with this ethnic group. Finally, a review of the existing literature on personality disorder instruments for use with Asian Americans is covered, along with recommendations for clinical use with clients. The theme throughout this chapter is the role of sociocultural influences in shaping personality traits and how these influences affect assessment of personality disorders in Asian Americans.
Laher, S. (2014). Exploring the utility of the CPAI-2 in a South African sample: Implications for the FFM. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 67-75.
[Abstract] The Cross-Cultural Personality Assessment Inventory-2 (CPAI-2) was developed as an alternative instrument to measure personality in Asian cultures based on the argument that available instruments are largely based on the Five Factor Model of personality and may not adequately assess personality in Asian cultures. Research on the CPAI-2 was extended to non-Asian particularly Western cultures but not to African cultures. In this study a sample of 425 South African university students completed both the CPAI-2 and the NEO-PI-R to consider the utility of the CPAI-2 and the four factor model in which the instrument is located in an African context. The results were did not provide conclusive support for the four factor model as conceptualised in the CPAI-2. Support for the five factors of the FFM was evident but the results from both the four and five factor models indicated empirical support for a social relational aspect of personality. Based on these results, this paper argues for the necessity of incorporating social relational elements into the existing FFM and reflects on work done in the South African context which can inform this direction.
Suryono, S. & Foo, K.H. (2014). Understanding Career Choice Among Asians: The Need For Indigenous Vocational Psychology? Proceedings of the International Conference on Managing the Asian Century, 2013, 327-333.
[Abstract] Research studies in psychology have shown that human behaviours differ across culture. As such, Western psychological theories have been criticized for assuming their universality in explaining behaviour of people across nations. This paper addresses vocation-related variables that influence career decision-making among culturally-different Asians. This review suggests that merely applying Western psychological theories without taking into account culture-specific values, beliefs, concepts, and systems indigenous to Asian culture may not fully explain the complexities of work-related issues in Asia. With increasing research studies in developing indigenous psychology, psychology can offer more practical values in understanding human behaviours in Asian context.
Valchev, V. H., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Meiring, D., Nel, J. A., Hill, C., Laher, S., & Adams, B. G. (2014). Beyond Agreeableness: Social-relational personality concentps from an indigenous and cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 48, 17-32.
[Abstract] The links of social–relational concepts (SRC) of personality identified in South Africa with the Five Factor Model (FFM), Interpersonal Relatedness (IR), social desirability, and prosocialness were examined. In Study 1 (N = 1483), the SRC defined two factors (positive and negative) distinct from the FFM, more strongly linked to relational than to tradition-focused IR aspects and to impression management than to deception. Links to tradition-focused concepts were stronger, and scores on positive SRC higher in Blacks than in Whites. In Study 2 (N = 325), SRC explained substantial variance in prosocialness above the FFM. In Study 3 (N = 1283), the SRC were replicated in a Dutch multicultural sample. The findings suggest expanding the FFM with respect to social–relational functioning.
Wu, L., Roche, M., Dowgwillo, E., Wang, S., & Pincus, A. (2014). A Chinese Translation of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems–Short Circumplex. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97(2), 153-162.
[Abstract] The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems–Short Circumplex (IIP–SC) is a self-report measure of subjective distress linked to behavioral excesses and inhibitions in social relationships. The IIP–SC exhibits circumplex structure reflecting the underlying dimensions of dominance–submissiveness and warmth–coldness. We translated the IIP–SC into Mandarin Chinese using rigorous translation and back-translation methods with independent native speakers. University students in the People's Republic of China (N = 401) completed the translated IIP–SC and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI–2), an omnibus measure of indigenous personality trait dimensions and symptoms of psychopathology. The circumplex structure of the Chinese IIP–SC was confirmed using principal components analysis, a randomization test for hypothesized order relations, and confirmatory circumplex analysis. The validity of the Chinese IIP–SC was evaluated by examining its associations with the CPAI–2 scales. Validity evidence for Chinese translation of the IIP–SC extends its use for clinical assessment to native Chinese speakers, although ongoing work to improve its reliability is needed.
Dere, J., Tang, Q., Zhu, X., Cai, L., Yao, S., & Ryder, A. G. (2013). The cultural shaping of alexithymia: Values and externally oriented thinking in a Chinese clinical sample. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54, 362-368.
[Abstract] OBJECTIVE: Alexithymia is a multi-faceted personality construct characterized by difficulties in identifying and describing emotional states. Originally based on observations of American psychosomatic patients, the construct is now studied in a variety of cultural contexts. However, few studies have critically examined alexithymia from a cultural perspective. Dere et al. [1] recently found support for the hypothesis that one alexithymia component - externally oriented thinking (EOT) - is linked to cultural values, among Euro-Canadian and Chinese-Canadian students. The current study examines this association in a Chinese clinical sample. METHODS: Outpatients presenting at three hospital-based psychology clinics in Hunan province, China (N=268) completed a structured clinical interview and self-report measures of alexithymia and cultural values. All participants endorsed clinically significant levels of depressed mood, anhedonia, and/or fatigue. RESULTS: As expected, EOT was negatively predicted by Modernization and Euro-American values. Two other alexithymia components, difficulty identifying feelings and difficulty describing feelings, were unrelated to cultural values. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that cultural variations in the importance placed on emotional experience must be taken into account in cross-cultural alexithymia research. Such studies should also consider separately the specific components of alexithymia; failure to do so can lead to overestimation of alexithymia in groups where scores are driven by culturally-promoted EOT.
Hampton, N. Z., & Xiao, F. (2013). Personality and attitudes of Chinese university students toward people with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation, 79, 3-10.
[Abstract] The purpose of the study was to explore relationships among personality, Chinese cultural values, and attitudes toward people with intellectual disabilities in Chinese university students. Two hundred and forty two Chinese university students participated in the study. Three instruments were used , including the Mental Retardation Attitude Inventory-Revised (Antonak & Harth, 1994), the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory-2 (Cheung, Leung, Song, Zhang, & Zhang, 1996), and the Chinese Value Survey (Chinese Cultural Connection, 1987). Simultaneous regression analysis indicated that three personality variables (aesthetics, interpersonal tolerance and responsibility) were related to attitudes toward people with intellectual disabilities after controlling the influences of participant's major. The combination of the participant's major, aesthetics, interpersonal tolerance, and responsibility accounted for 20% of the variance in attitudes. Implications of the findings are discussed in the contexts of socioeconomic environments in China.
You, J., Leung, F., Lai, K. K. Y., & Fu, K. (2013). Factor Structure and Psychometric Properties of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory Among Chinese University Students. ournal of Personality Assessment, 95, 309-318.
[Abstract]The Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) is a multidimensional measure of narcissistic pathology. This study examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of the PNI in a sample of Chinese university students in Hong Kong. Eight hundred and thirty-one students completed an online battery of questionnaires assessing narcissistic pathology, self-esteem, unstable sense of self, and maladaptive self-defense strategies. Results replicated the 7 first-order factors and the 2 second-order factors of the PNI. Each of the 7 first-order factors and the 2 second-order factors had good internal consistency. Preliminary findings also supported the concurrent validity of the PNI. The PNI appeared to be a valid measure of narcissistic pathology among Chinese. Findings of this study suggest that the core pathology of pathological narcissism might involve an inflated sense of self-importance that is not substantiated by actual achievement, and bearing this unsubstantiated sense of self-importance renders narcissists highly susceptible to self-deflation when their narcissistic needs are not met.
Dere, J., Falk, C. F., & Ryder, A. G. (2012). Unpacking cultural differences in alexithymia: The role of cultural values among Euro-Canadian and Chinese-Canadian students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 1297-1312. DOI: 10.1177/0022022111430254.
[Abstract] The current study provides a cultural examination of alexithymia, a multifaceted personality construct that refers to a general deficit in the ability to identify and describe emotional states, and that has been linked to a number of psychiatric illnesses. Though this construct has been critiqued as heavily rooted in “Western” norms of emotional expression, it has not received much empirical attention from a cultural perspective. Recently, Ryder et al. (2008) found that higher levels of alexithymia among Chinese versus Euro-Canadian outpatients were explained by group differences in one component of alexithymia, externally oriented thinking (EOT); they proposed that Chinese cultural contexts may encourage EOT due to a greater emphasis on social relationships and interpersonal harmony rather than inner emotional experience. The current study examined the hypothesis that EOT is more strongly shaped by cultural values than are two other components of alexithymia, difficulty identifying feelings (DIF) and difficulty describing feelings (DDF). Euro-Canadian (n = 271) and Chinese-Canadian (n = 237) undergraduates completed measures of alexithymia and cultural values. Chinese-Canadians showed higher levels of EOT than Euro-Canadians (p < .001). EOT, and not DIF or DDF, was predicted by Modernization and Euro-American values in both groups. Furthermore, cultural values mediated the effect of group membership on levels of EOT. These results suggest that cultural differences in alexithymia may be explained by culturally based variations in the importance placed on emotions, rather than deficits in emotional processing. The study also raises questions about the measurement and meaning of EOT, particularly from a cross-cultural perspective.
Zhang, H., Wang, K., Liu, Y., & Chan, D. K. (2012). Factors associated with stress of conscience among emergency medical technicians in China. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 19, 89-96.
[Abstract] The current study was designed to investigate factors related to stress of conscience among emergency medical technicians in China. One hundred and seventy-five doctors and nurses from emergency departments completed questionnaires measuring demographic information, two personality traits (i.e. responsibility and logical-affective orientation), stress of conscience and colleagues' stress of conscience. Important findings include the following: (i) Stress of conscience varied as a function of age, years of work, and marital status; (ii) Participants' stress of conscience was highly associated with colleagues' stress of conscience; and (iii) Both responsibility and a logical orientation were negatively associated with stress of conscience.
Zhang, X., Tian, P., & Grigoriou, N. (2011). Gain face, but lose happiness? It depends on how much money you have. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 112-125.
[Abstract] The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of face consciousness on happiness and the moderating role of financial situation on this relationship. We first examined our hypotheses in study 1 in a particular setting of consumption, and replicated our findings in study 2 in a more generalized setting of interpersonal situations. The two studies produced essentially consistent results. We found individuals high on face consciousness tend to be less happy, and the negative association between face consciousness and happiness is ameliorated by their financial situation. These results revealed the importance of face consciousness as an individual difference in predicting happiness. The implications of these findings for future research are discussed.
Zhou, X., Dere, J., Zhu, X., Yao, S., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., & Ryder, A. G. (2011). Anxiety symptom presentations in Han Chinese and Euro-Canadian outpatients: Is distress always somatized in China? Journal of Affective Disorder, 135, 111-114.
[Abstract] BACKGROUND: Cultural variations in the relative emphasis on somatic versus psychological symptoms of distress are a common topic in cultural psychopathology. The most well-known example involves people of Chinese heritage, who are found to emphasize somatic symptoms in presenting depression as compared with people of Western European heritage. It remains unknown whether a similar cultural difference is found for anxiety disorders. METHODS: Euro-Canadian (n=79) and Han Chinese (n=154) psychiatric outpatients with clinically significant concerns about both depression and anxiety were selected from a larger dataset based on their responses to a structured interview. They also completed two self-report questionnaires assessing somatization of depression and anxiety. RESULTS: As expected, Chinese participants reported a greater tendency to emphasize somatic symptoms of depression, as compared to the Euro-Canadians. Contrary to expectations, the tendency to emphasize somatic symptoms of anxiety was higher among the Euro-Canadians as compared to the Chinese participants. LIMITATIONS: Characteristics of our participants limit the generalizability of our findings. The current study is preliminary and requires replication. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the exploratory nature of this study, the results suggest that the popular notion of 'Chinese somatization' should not be over-generalized. Our findings also imply that there may be important differences in the cultural understanding of depression and anxiety in both Chinese and 'Western' contexts. Future studies should seek to unpack potential cultural explanations for why Euro-Canadian outpatients may emphasize somatic symptoms in the presentation of anxiety to a greater degree than Chinese outpatients. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Chang, C., & Chang, F. (2010). Relationships among traditional Chinese personality traits, work stress, and emotional intelligence in workers in the semiconductor industry in Taiwan. Quality & Quantity, 44, 733-748.
[Abstract] This study investigated relationships among personality, emotional intelligence, and work stress. The sample consisted of 395 workers in the semiconductor industry employed by firms located at Hsinchu Science Park in Taiwan. SPSS was used to calculate descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlations, and multiple regressions. Factors related to the personal backgrounds of workers and work stress served as dependent variables, traditional Chinese personality traits served as the independent variables, and emotional intelligence served as the mediating variable. Results showed that the emotional intelligence of workers in the semiconductor industry significantly influenced perceptions of work stress. Thus, emotional intelligence represents a valid mediator between Chinese personality traits and perceptions of work stress.
Wong, A. L. Y., Shaw, G.. H., & Ng, D. K. C. (2010). Taiwan Chinese managers' personality: Is Confucian influence on the wane? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(7), 1108-1123.
[Abstract] This paper conjectures that Chinese managers' personality in the Taiwan context, as shaped by Chinese tradition, has been moderated in response to their career experience. The paper begins with an introduction to Chinese culture and its impact on values and personality. It then goes on to argue that if the cultural context can nurture personality, we should therefore expect that as the context changes, personality can be moderated via economic reforms as in the case of Taiwan. It is reasonable to assume that among the Taiwanese, the occupational grouping that has most actively felt the impact of these reforms is managers who have been at the forefront of making them happen. We are not aware of any studies focusing on Taiwanese managers which attempt to assess how far their personality is still shaped by Confucian values which have strongly influenced Chinese traditions, and how far it has experienced changes that have come about through modernization and economic reform. We have addressed this research gap using the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI), an indigenous Chinese personality instrument developed by Cheung et al. (1996) with the support of an interview programme and a biographical data sheet to flesh out details related to the subjects' lives and experience. The findings suggest that the traditional Chinese personality with its grounding in Confucianism has been gradually eroding but that some elements of it are still strongly in evidence. The contribution of this study lies in illustrating how personality may be undergoing convergence through modernization. It also signals that cultural boundaries with reference to emic and etic research may also be converging. To the extent that this is so, future studies on culture and business management in China may need to reappraise their understanding of the nature of Chinese culture, values and personality, and how they have responded to business forces in a globalized world.
Chen, H., Luo, S. H., Yue, G. Y., Xu, D., & Zhaoyang, R. X. (2009). Do birds of a feather flock together in China? Personal Relationships, 16, 167-186.
[Abstract] Evidence of couple similarity was examined in 2 nationally representative samples (Ns = 536 and 537 couples) from mainland China. Variable-centered and couple-centered tests provided convergent results suggesting that husbands and wives were considerably similar on characteristics of 3 broad categories: demographic variables, values, and personality. Additional tests suggest that value and personality similarities were not likely to be due to social homogamy, convergence, response biases, or culture-unique characteristics. Whereas the couple similarity on demographics and values largely mirrors what has been observed in Western research, Chinese couples' consistent and strong similarity on personality domains presents a striking contrast to Western couples who share little systematic similarity on personality.
Wang, Z. (2009). A research on androgynous undergraduates’ personality traits. [in Chinese: 雙性化大學生人格特徵研究] Psychological Exploration [心理學探新], 109, 64-68.
[Abstract] Objective To examine the difference of undergraduates' personality traits in sex,gender role stereotype and new gender role stereotype.Method A sample of 826 undergraduates was tested by CSRI,NEO-PI-R,CAPI.Result(1) Androgynous undergraduates' ratio in total is 1/4.(2) According to Bem,Androgynous undergraduates' openness,agreeableness,conscientiousness,harmonious,Ren Qing,flexity higher than other gender role stereotype undergraduates.According to Brenda Mae Woodhill and Curtis A.Samuels,positive androgynous undergraduates' extraversion,openness,agreeableness,conscientiousness,harmonious higher than negative androgynous' undergraduates and other gender role stereotype undergraduates.
[摘要] 通過對北京市某所大學826名大學生的調查,探討性別、性別角色類型和新性別角色類型對大學生人格特徵的影響.結果表明:1)雙性化性別角色類型大學生約占1/4;2)用貝姆的分類方法,雙性化大學生在開放性、宜人性、責任感、和諧性、人情、靈活性人格特徵上均高於其他性別角色類型的大學生,可見,雙性化性別角色大學生具有較積極的人格特徵.按照Brenda Mae Woodhill和Curtis A.Samuels的分類方法,在外向性、開放性、宜人性、責任感、和諧性人格特徵上,正性雙性化性別角色類型的大學生均高於負性雙性化大學生和其他性別角色類型的大學生.
Tsai, M., Chi, S. S., & Hu, H. (2009). Salespeople’s Renqing Orientation, self-esteem, and selling behaviors: An empirical study in Taiwan. Journal of Business and Psychology, 24, 193-200.
[Abstract] Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate how salespeople’s renqing orientation and self-esteem jointly affect their selling behavior. Design/Methodology/Approach: Data were obtained from a survey of salespeople from 17 pharmaceutical and consumer-goods companies in Taiwan (n = 216). Findings: Salespeople’s renqing orientation (i.e., their propensity to adhere to the accepted norm of reciprocity) compensates the negative effect of self-esteem on their selling behaviors, such as adaptive selling and hard work. Implications: Our study results underscore the critical role of the character trait of renqing orientation in a culture emphasizing a norm of reciprocity. Therefore, it would be useful to consider a strategy of recruiting salespeople with either a high self-esteem or a combination of high renqing orientation and low self-esteem. Originality/Value: The existing literature of industrial/organizational psychology and marketing primarily relies on constructs that are derived from Western cultural contexts. However, the present paper extended these literatures by investigating the possible joint effects of self-esteem with a trait originated from the Chinese culture on salespeople’s selling behaviors.
Cao, S., Li, H., Zhang, Y., & Li, Y. (2008). Application of emotional problems factor of Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory II in anxiety disorders patients [in Chinese: 中國人個性-情感量表在焦慮障礙患者中的應用分析]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology [中國臨床心理學雜誌], 16, 476-478.
[Abstract] Objective:To evaluate the reliability and validity of Emotional Problems Factor of Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory II(CPAI2-E).Methods:Item analysis of the test was carried out;internal consistency reliability, retest reliability and structure validity, differential validity were examined.Results:①Through factor analysis, 20 subordinate factors were got.②The Cronbach α coefficient of the total was 0.948 and each factor ranged from 0.755 to 0.896;re-test reliability of the total test was 0.718.Conclusion:CPAI2-E can be used as an effective and reliable tool for assessing anxiety disorders.
[摘要] 目的:评估中国人个性量表之情感量表(Emotional Problems Factor ofChinese Personality Assessment Invento-ry 2,CPAI2-E)在焦虑障碍患者中的适用性. 方法:以144例焦虑障碍患者和144名健康对照为样本进行信度、效度评定. 结果:①通过探索性因素分析6个CPAI2-E因子分别得到2～4个子因子层面,条目负荷在0.4134～0.779之间.实证效度具有较好的区分能力.②总量表内部一致性系数(Cronbach's α)为0.948,各因子在0.755～0.896之间.重测信度检测发现,CPAI2-E量表为0.718,各因子在0.496～0.730. 结论:中国人个性量表之情感量表(CPAI2-E)在焦虑障碍患者中有较好的适用性.
Cao, S., Zhang, Y., Li, H., & Li, Y. (2008). Personality orientation, anxiety trait and general self-efficacy of anxiety disorders [in Chinese: 焦慮障礙者的個性傾向、特質焦慮和自我效能感]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology [中國臨床心理學雜誌], 16, 646-648.
[Abstract] Objective: To explore the relationships of personality characteristics, Anxiety trait, and general self-efficacy with anxiety disorders. Methods: By case-matched study, 144 patients with anxiety disorders and 144 normal controls were administered the Emotional Problems Factor of Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory II (CPAI2-E), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and General Self-efficacy Scale. Results: ①The scores of patients with anxiety disorders were higher than those of the normal controls in CPAI2-E (P0.01). ②The scores of the patients were higher than those of the controls in Trait Anxiety (P0.01), but those of the patients were lower than the controls in General Self-efficacy (P0.01). ③The study showed there were close correlation between state anxiety and personality tendency of CPAI2-E, and trait anxiety but negative correlation with general perceived self-efficacy (P0.01). ④Multi regressive analysis found anxiety factor and trait anxiety were major influential factors of anxiety. Conclusion: The interaction among all factors were the basis of personality psycho-pathogenesy of anxiety disorders, and trait anxiety and anxiety factor were more closely related to anxiety.
[摘要] 目的：通过对焦虑障碍患者个性倾向、自我效能感、特质焦虑等影响因素的相关研究,探讨焦虑障碍可能的病理心理学机制。方法：采用病例对照研究,对144例焦虑障碍患者和144名健康人利用中国人个性量表-情感量表（CPAI2-E）、状态-特质焦虑问卷（STAI）、自我效能感量表（GSES）评定。结果：①患者组情感量表的诸因子得分显著高于对照组（P〈0.01）;②患者组特质焦虑得分显著高于对照组,而自我效能感得分对照组高于患者组（P〈0.01）;③状态焦虑与情感量表各因子、特质焦虑呈正相关（r=0.459～0.781,P〈0.01）,与自我效能感量呈负相关（r=-0.332,P〈0.01）。④多元逐步回归分析发现,特质焦虑和焦虑紧张因子与焦虑情绪的关系更为密切。结论：特质焦虑、抑郁、焦虑紧张、躯体症状、躯体化、性适应不良及自卑倾向等诸多因素间的交互作用可能是焦虑障碍发生的病理心理学基础,特质焦虑与焦虑情绪的关系更为密切。
Luo, S., Chen, H., Yue, G., Zhang, G., Zhaoyang, R., & Xu, D. (2008). Predicting marital satisfaction from self, partner, and couple characteristics: Is it me, you, or us? Journal of Personality, 76, 1231-1265. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00520.x.
[Abstract] Past research on the link between personal characteristics and marital satisfaction has taken either an individual or a dyadic approach. The individual approach examines how self and/or partner characteristics are associated with satisfaction, whereas the dyadic approach focuses on couple characteristics such as couple similarity. The current research was designed to integrate both approaches. A modified Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (Kashy & Kenny, 2000) was proposed to test simultaneously the contributions of self characteristics, partner characteristics, and two types of couple similarity (level similarity measured by the absolute difference score and shape similarity measured by the profile correlation) in predicting husbands' and wives' marital satisfaction. This model was tested by structural equation modeling in two large, nationally representative, urban samples (N=536 and 537 couples) from China. The results were largely replicated across four personality domains and two value domains, suggesting that all predictors tended to make independent contributions to satisfaction except the absolute difference score.
Kurman, J., & Dan, O. (2007). Unpacking cross-cultural differences in initiation between Israeli subgroups: Tradition and control orientations as mediating factors. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 581-594. DOI: 10.1177/0022022107305240.
[Abstract] This study was designed to gain a better understanding of cross - cultural differences in initiation behaviour within the relatively westernized israeli society. It has been suggested that traditional subgroups in israel exhibit lower initiation behaviour than the majority group and that control orientations mediate this difference based on their high relevance to initiation and their previously established difference in modern versus traditional cultures. A sample of 178 students comprised of members of the majority group and of two traditional subgroups (israeli arabs and israelis of ethiopian origin) was investiagted. The modern and traditional groups were ocmpared on two measures of initiation behaviour. Models showed that the expected cross - cultural difference sin initiation were unpackaged by tradition and control orientations, with tradition, secondary control and relinquished control serving as meaningful mediators. Primary control was a less proximal predictor.
Li, H., & Chang, L. (2007). Parental harsh parenting in relation to parental versus child characteristics: The moderating effect of parental resemblance belief [in Chinese: 父親嚴厲教養與父親及兒童心理行為特點的關係: 父親與兒童類似性判斷的調節作用]. Acta Psychologica Sinica [心理學報], 39, 495-501.
[Abstract] Based on a sample of 338 Chinese parents and their only children, paternal resemblance belief was found to attenuate the association between paternal harsh parenting and child characteristics, such as emotion dysregulation and aggression, and to strengthen the association between harsh parenting and such paternal characteristics as depressive affect and marital dissatisfaction. These findings support the evolutionary view that, as an adaptation to calm paternity doubt, paternal resemblance belief leads to improved paternal investment.
[摘要] 本研究分別調查了338名中國父母的嚴厲教養、抑鬱情感與婚姻滿意度及其獨生子女的情感失調與攻擊行為情況。研究結果顯示父親對兒童與自己的類似性判斷減弱了父親嚴厲教養與兒童的情感失調和攻擊行為間的聯繫，但加強了父親的嚴厲教養與抑鬱和婚姻不滿意度間的關係。這些發現支持了父母教養的進化觀點，降低父親的生殖疑慮可能具有進化適應性，父親與兒童的類似性判斷會提高父親對兒童的投資。
Gan, Y., Yang, M., Zhou, Y. & Zhang, Y. (2007). The two-factor structure of future-oriented coping and its mediating role in student engagement. Personality and Individual Differences, l 43(4), 851-863.
[Abstract] The objectives of the current studies are to explore the factor structure of future-oriented coping and its mediating role in student engagement. In study 1, 254 college students completed the Future-Oriented Coping Inventory, Self- rating Depression Scale, and the Optimism-Pessimism dimension of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory. In study 2, 171 college students completed the Future-Oriented Coping Inventory, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Student Version, and the Stress Perception Indicator. Results indicated a clear 2-factor structure of future-oriented coping: proactive coping and preventive coping. Compared to preventive coping, proactive coping had significantly higher correlations with depression and optimism. Proactive coping fully mediated the relationship between stress and engagement whereas preventive coping partially mediated this relationship.
Yeung, D. Y., Fung, H. H.& Lang, F. R.(2007). Gender differences in social network characteristics and psychological well-being among Hong Kong Chinese: The role of future time perspective and adherence to Renqing. Aging & Mental Health, 11(1), 45-56.
[Abstract] Gender differences in social network characteristics are well documented in the literature. Socio-emotional selectivity theory emphasizes the importance of future time perception on selection of social partners whereas cultural studies stress the roles of Renqing (relationship orientation) on social interactions. This study examined the effects of future time perspective and adherence to Renqing on social network characteristics, and their associations with psychological well-being of 321 Chinese men and women, aged 28-91 years. Results showed that adherence to Renqing partially accounted for gender differences in the number of relatives, even after controlling for the effects of extraversion and structural factors. Moreover, women, but not men, with lower adherence to Renqing and more limited future time perspective were found to be happier when they had fewer close friends in their social networks.
Fung, H. H. & Ng, S. K. (2006). Age differences in the sixth personality factor: Age differences in interpersonal relatedness among Canadians and Hong Kong Chinese. Psychology and Aging, 21(4), 810-814.
[Abstract] Cross-cultural studies on personality in which a combined etic-emic approach has been used have found a 6th personality factor--Interpersonal Relatedness--in addition to the usual Big Five. The authors examined age differences in Interpersonal Relatedness among Canadians and Hong Kong Chinese after statistically controlling for the Big Five. Age differences in some aspects of Interpersonal Relatedness were found among Hong Kong Chinese but not among Canadians, suggesting that development of some personality characteristics may differ across cultures.
To, Y. W. (2006). An indigenous model of leadership effectiveness in the Chinese work setting. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 67(1-B), 589.
[Executive Summary] The present research examined leadership effectiveness in the Chinese work setting from a leadership complexity perspective, which integrates both the behavioral complexity model derived from Quinn's (1988) Competing Value Framework and indigenous concepts that are salient to understanding Chinese leadership behaviors. The objectives of the present research are: (1) to establish a leadership complexity framework for understanding Chinese executive leaders; (2) to examine the differential expectations among executives themselves, their subordinates and superiors on leadership effectiveness; and (3) to examine how various personality characteristics relate to one's leadership behaviors and subsequent leadership effectiveness in a Chinese cultural context. The research study has been carried between September 2002 and March 2005. Two pilot studies were first carried out to prepare the survey protocols for the Main Study. In the Main Study, completed survey questionnaires were analyzed on a valid sample of 152 senior executives from both Hong Kong and Mainland China, their immediate superiors (N=111), and at least two immediate subordinates (N=334). Key results are as follows: (1) Leadership Complexity was identified as best represented by a five-dimension model of leadership behaviors. The five leadership dimensions were Leading Change, Producing Results, Managing Processes, Relating to People, and Exhibiting Moral Behavior. (2) Various organizational members (i.e., executives themselves, their superiors and subordinates) shared a similar definition of Leadership Complexity while they differed in the ways they associated specific leadership behaviors with effectiveness; (3) The relational aspect of personality, being captured by indigenous personality scales from the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2), was important in explaining leadership behaviors and leadership effectiveness beyond those personality characteristics found in Western studies. The present research sheds lights on understanding executive leadership as follows: 1. Potential assessment protocols in a framework of leadership complexity for leadership assessment and development are made available for application. 2. A common framework of perceiving leadership behaviors among various organization members is tested for use for aligning expectations towards leaders. 3. The impact of relational aspect of personality on leadership behaviors and leadership effectiveness highlights importance of future efforts in developing the interpersonal aspects of executive leadership. Being a promising start to understanding executive leaders in the Chinese work setting from a leadership complexity framework, the research is not without limitations. The model should be further validated with larger Chinese samples as well as non-Chinese samples. Moreover, there did not reveal any gender differences in leadership behaviors and effectiveness in the current male-dominated sample (over 2/3 are males). With the emerging trend of women leaders in the 21st Century, however, it is of interest to revisit the issue of gender differences when a more balanced sample represented by both male and female senior leaders can be recruited in future.
Tyler, G. P. & Newcombe, P. A. (2006). Relationship between work performance and personality traits in Hong Kong organizational settings. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14(1), 37-50.
[Abstract] Four hundred and thirty-seven employees from four Hong Kong organizations completed the Traditional Chinese versions of the Fifteen Factor Personality Questionnaire Plus (15FQ+) and the Cross-Cultural Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI-2) (indigenous scales) and provided objective and memory-based recent performance appraisal scores. A number of significant bivariate correlations were found between personality and performance scores. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that a number of the scales from the 15FQ+ contributed to significantly predicting four of the performance competency dimensions, but that the CPAI-2 indigenous scales contributed no incremental validity in performance prediction over and above the 15FQ+. Results are discussed in the light of previous research and a call made for continued research to further develop and increase the reliability of the Chinese instruments used in the study and to enable generalization of the findings with confidence.
Yang, K. (2006). Indigenous personality research. In U. Kim, K. Yang, & K. Hwang (Eds.). Indigenous and Cultural Psychology: Understanding People in Context, p. 285-314. Boston, MA: Springer Science & Business Media, Inc.
[From the chapter] After a comprehensive and systematic review of psychological studies on Chinese personality conducted before 1985, K. S. Yang (1986) characterized Chinese personality research as thoroughly Westernized, or, more precisely, Americanized, in the sense that nearly all of the studies uncritically borrowed theories, concepts, methods, and tools developed and standardized in Western historical, cultural, and social contexts specifically for use with Euro-American subjects. Under the influence of an academic movement labeled psychological research indigenization, since the mid-seventies increasing numbers of psychologists in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China have been conducting research with an indigenized approach. This approach requires that the researchers’ theories, concepts, methods, tools, and results sufficiently represent the natural structures, mechanisms, and processes of the studied psychological and behavioral phenomena as embedded in their original ecological, historical, cultural, and social contexts (C. F. Yang, 1993a, 1996; K. S. Yang, 1993b, 1997a, 1997b, 1999, 2000). Numerous indigenous psychological studies on Chinese behavior in various research areas of psychology have been published in domestic and international academic journals. K. S. Yang (1997a, 2000) has made selected reviews of the empirical, theoretical, and methodological accomplishments of indigenized research on Chinese psychological functioning. This chapter presents an additional review that specifically stresses the integrative analysis of indigenized studies on Chinese personality from the perspective of a particular conceptual system in terms of individual and social orientations.
Chan, B. (2005). From West to East: The Impact of Culture on Personality and Group Dynamics. Cross Cultural Management, 12(1), 31-45.
[Abstract] This article examines how personality types of tutors affect group interaction at a distance learning institution in Hong Kong. All participants of this study are Chinese, and they were given two personality assessment tools to complete: (1) the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which was developed in the West in the early 1940s; and (2) the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory which was developed in Hong Kong in the early 1990s. The CPAI consists of personality constructs of specific interest to people of Chinese culture but that were not covered in most of the translated personality inventories. The purpose of using two personality tests is to explore whether a culturally specific instrument will be a more comprehensive measure that can reveal particular distinctive factors in the relevant culture.
Lai, L., Kao, H. S. R., & Xu, Q. W. (2005). Relation between Chinese indigenous personality and mental health. [in Chinese: 華人傳統人格與心理健康表現之相關：以"中國人個性測量表"為工具] Research in Applied Psychology [應用心理研究], 27, 81-109.
[Abstract] "Personality" is the response of social lifestyle and culture. Therefore, with the development of "modernization", the structure of personality must be rearranged. If its rearrangement couldn't respond to the requirements of the social lifestyle, we would have problems in adaptation and mental troubles. For decades, we have created a miracle on economy and democracy in Taiwan, but this development seems to have produced some evil effects on our mental and physical health. This essay aims at the relation between Chinese indigenous personality and mental health. We summed up three essays about the same theme with our research. And we adopted "Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory", a questionnaire with Chinese feature, to discuss how Chinese indigenous personality affects people's mental health, and further, to discuss differences between Taiwan and China.
[摘要] 「人格」是社會生活型態、文化的反應，所以在「現代化」發展過程中，人格結構也必須隨之「重新安排」。如果人格結構的重組未能達到社會生活型態的要求，則會產生適應不良與心理困擾。數十年來，台灣不斷創造了舉世驚呼的經濟與民主奇蹟，但這樣的發展似乎也對國人心理健康與生理適應產生不良的影響。本文旨在探討華人傳統人格與心理健康的關係，收錄賴樂山(2004)「華人人格與心理健康關係之研究探討」、賴樂山、高尚仁、許志隆、藍雅如、韓青芳、張妙清(2004)「兩岸傳統華人人格與心理健康關係之研究探討」及許馨尹(2004)「上級主管傳統性格與其下屬身心健康之關係研究」等三份研究，採用具華人特色之「中國人個性量表」(CPAI-2)，探討面子、人情、阿Q精神、親情、寬容、老實、和諧性、傳統性等華人傳統人格對於心理健康表現的影響，並進一步探討兩岸（台灣與大陸）間的差異。
Lin, F., Zhou, X., Zhang, L., Cheung, M. F., Leung, F., & Zhang, S. F. (2005). Comparison of personalities between patients with depressive disorders and anxiety disorders [in Chinese: 抑鬱障礙患者與焦慮障礙患者的個性測定比較] . Shanghai Archives of psychiatry [上海精神醫學], 17 (5): 30-32.
[Abstract] Objective: To compare the personality profiles of patients with neurotic disorders.Methods: 133 patients with depressive disorders and 105 patients with anxiety disorders at two hospitals were administered the CPAI-2(Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory).Results:Significant differences were found in on the following normal personality scales: Novelty(t=2.39,P<0.05),Divergent Thinking(t=3.01,P<0.01),Logical vs Affective Orientation(t=3.09,P<0.01),Defensiveness(Ah-Q Mentality)(t=2.26,P<0.05),Veraciousness vs Slickness(t=-1.98,P<0.05),Social Sensitivity(t=2.57,P<0.05).Differences were also found on the following clinical scales: Anxiety(t=2.15,P<0.05),Depression(t=-2.48,P<0.01),Pathological Dependence(t=-2.34,P<0.05),Hypomania(t=2.42,P<0.05).Conclusion:The convergences and differences in the personality characteristics of these patients were discussed.
[摘要] 目的探討抑郁障礙患者與焦慮障礙患者的個性特征差異。方法使用本土化的人格測量工具《中國人個性測量表2》(CPAI-2)對抑郁障礙患者和焦慮障礙患者進行調查。結果在一般性格特征上兩類人群在新穎性(t=2.39,P<0.05)、多元思考(t=3.01,P<0.01)、理智-情感(t=3.09,P<0.01)、阿Q精神(t=2.26,P<0.05)、老實-圓滑(t=-1.98,P<0.05)、人際觸覺(t=2.57,P<0.05)等六個方面存在顯著差異,在病態性格特征上兩類人群在焦慮緊張(t=2.15,P<0.05)、抑郁(t=-2.48,P<0.01)、病態依賴(t=-2.34,P<0.05)、興奮性(t=2.42,P<0.05)等四個方面存在顯著差異。結論抑郁障礙患者和焦慮障礙患者的個性特征存在有共性和個性。
Liu, L. A., Friedman, R. A. & Chi, S. (2005). 'Ren Qing' versus the 'Big Five': The role of culturally sensitive measures of individual difference in distributive negotiations. Management and Organization Review, 1(2), 225-247.
[Abstract] In this study, we examine culture-specific relationships between individual differences and distributive negotiations. We measured individual characteristics and their effects on distributive negotiations in both American[1] and Chinese cultures, using a Western-based scale (the 'Big Five') and a Chinese-based scale (CPAI). We found that agreeableness and extraversion (from the 'Big Five') affected negotiations for Americans, but not for Chinese. We found that harmony, face and Ren Qing (from the Chinese-based scales) affected negotiations for Chinese, but not for Americans. Specifically, we found that in the American culture, those higher in extraversion and agreeableness achieved lower economic gain, whereas in the Chinese context that those high in harmony, face, and Ren Qing were more likely to be influenced by opening offers and achieve lower economic gain in distributive negotiations. Our study highlights the need to examine negotiations using culturally sensitive constructs and measures.
Zhang, L. & Feng, J. (2005). Study on the personality characteristics of androgyny undergraduate [in Chinese: 大學生雙性化人格特徵研究]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology[中國臨床心理學雜誌], 13(4), 434-436.
[Abstract] Objective: The study explores the characteristics of Chinese college students' androgyny personality. Methods: Two scales,BSRI and CPAI-2, were used to test 976 undergraduates from five universities in Kunming. Yunnan province. China. The data were dealed with by social science statistic soft pack SPSS10.0. Principal method was one-way ANOVA. Results: The result showed that angrogyny individuals have the social potency of masculinity and interpersonal relatedness of feminility simultaneously. Conclusion: There are both social potency and interpersonal relatedness in the characteristics of Chinese college students' androgyny personality.
[摘要] 目的:探討中國雙性化大學生的人格特點.方法:使用BSRI和CPAI-2量表對雲南省昆明地區976名大學生被試進行集體測試,並運用方差分析方法統計所得數據.結果:中國大學生四種性別類型的分佈差異顯著;雙性化人格特徵中明顯帶有男性化和女性化的典型特徵,但又與中性化的人格特徵差異較大.結論:中國雙性化大學生具有"領導性"和"人際取向"的人格特徵.
Lin, E. J. & Church, A. T. (2004). Are indigenous Chinese personality dimensions culture-specific? An investigation of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory in Chinese American and European American samples. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(5), 586-605.
[Abstract] The cross-cultural generalizability of Chinese personality dimensions—in particular, the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI)—was investigated in samples of Chinese Americans (n= 201) and European Americans (n= 236). Four CPAI factors, including Interpersonal Relatedness, replicated very well in a Chinese American sample and fairly well in a European American sample, indicating that these dimensions are not unique to Chinese populations. Lowacculturation Chinese Americans, but not high-acculturation Chinese Americans, averaged higher than European Americans on the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension. This suggested that the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension, although not culture-unique, is more salient in or characteristic of individuals who retain or identify with traditional Chinese culture. Contrary to previous interpretations of the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension in terms of interdependent self-construals, the dimension was only modestly correla ted with relational and collective aspects of self, two aspects of interdependent self-construals.
Fu, H., Watkins, D. & Hui, E. K. P. (2004). Personality correlates of the disposition towards interpersonal forgiveness: A Chinese perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 39(4), 305 – 316.
[Abstract] This paper presents the results of three studies that investigated the nature of forgiveness, its measurement, and personality correlates in the People's Republic of China (PRC). Study 1 involved in-depth interviews with 27 PRC cultural scholars about the concept of forgiveness and factors influencing the tendency to forgive in Chinese philosophy and everyday life. The respondents supported the relevance of this concept for Chinese societies and were able to give examples both from classical Chinese texts and their own lives. However, they also considered that preserving group harmony was the main reason to forgive and discounted the personality or religious influences commonly reported in the Western literature. Study 2 reported the adaptation of a Western forgiveness questionnaire for use with PRC respondents. Study 3 involved administering this questionnaire together with measures of self-esteem, anxiety, impression management, and culturally appropriate constructs of face, relationship orientation, and harmony to 336 college students and 432 teachers from the PRC. As predicted, it was the latter two constructs that had the strongest correlations with the tendency to forgive in both samples. It was concluded that, in the PRC, willingness to forgive is influenced largely by social solidarity needs rather than the individualistic personality variables or religiosity reported in Western research. We hypothesize that this is due to the collectivist nature of PRC society and the results may well generalize to other collectivist cultures.
Hsiao, M. (2003). The relationship between Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory and job performance: An example of R&D personnel. Master Dissertation in human resources. National Central University, Taiwan.
[Abstract] Four hundred and thirty-seven employees from 4 Hong Kong organisations completed the Traditional Chinese versions of the 15FQ+ and the CPAI-2 (indigenous scales) personality questionnaires and provided objective and memory-based performance appraisal scores. A number of significant bivariate correlations were found between personality and performance scores. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that a number of the scales from the 15FQ+ contributed to significantly predicting four of the performance competency dimensions, but that the CPAI-2 indigenous scales contributed no incremental validity in performance prediction over and above the 15FQ+. Results are discussed in the light of previous research and a call made for continued research to further develop and increase the reliability of the Chinese instruments used in the study and to enable generalisation of the findings with confidence.
Kwong, J. Y. Y. (2003). Personality characteristics of Chinese hotel managers [in Chinese: 香港華人酒店管理人員之性格特徵]. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies. [華人心理學報] Special Issue: Psychology of Work in Chinese Societies, 4(1), 29-41.
Yeh, K., & Bedford, O. (2003). A test of the dual filial piety model. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 6, 215-228.
[Abstract] Filial piety is a central concept in Confucianism, containing important ideas about how children should treat their parents. Research over the past two decades has resulted in conflicting findings over whether filial piety is beneficial or harmful to individual development. The Dual Filial Piety model integrates these conflicting findings and suggests neither assessment of filial piety is appropriate. The present study offers empirical evidence in support of the dual model and offers commentary on the role of filial piety in modern Chinese society and directions for future research.
Chan, B. (2002). A study of the relationship between tutor’s personality and teaching effectiveness: Does culture make a difference? The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 3, 1-20.
[Abstract] The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory was completed by 59 Hong Kong open university tutors who had completed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Results were compared with student evaluations of teaching, indicating that Renqing (social favors), face, harmony, and leadership predicted teaching effectiveness. Facets derived from Chinese tradition usefully complemented the MBTI.
Cheung, M. W., & Chan, W. (2002). Reducing Uniform Response Bias With Ipsative Measurement in Multiple-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 55-77.
[Abstract] Response bias, defined by Paulhus (1991) as "a systematic tendency to respond to a range of questionnaire items on some basis other than the specific item content," has been observed in various disciplines, especially in cross-cultural research. In this study, a mathematical model of uniform response bias (URB) is defined. Ipsative measures (i.e., individual scores subject to a constant sum constraint) are proposed to minimize the effect of URB in multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to study the measurement invariance properties across different cultural groups. The method based on Chan and Bentler (1993, 1996) for analyzing ipsative data is extended here for analyzing multigroup data potentially contaminated by URB. A real data set based on the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) is used to demonstrate how the proposed procedure can be applied in real-life situations.
Sun, H. F., & Bond, M. H. (2000). Choice of influence tactics: Effects of the target person's behavioral patterns, status and the personality influencer. In Li, J.T., Tusk, A. S., & Weldon. E. (Eds.), Management and organizations in the Chinese context (pp. 283-302). London: MacMillan.
van de Vijver, F. J. R. & Leung, K. (2000). Methodological issues in psychological research on culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Special Issue: Millennium, 31(1), 33-51.
[Abstract] The extent to which methodological tools can help correct the overemphasis on fact finding and speed up the slow theoretical progress in cross-cultural psychology is analyzed. Two types of contributions to the current predicament are delineated. First, cross-cultural psychologists have created their own partis pris. Second, partis pris have been inherited from mainstream psychology. In the future, most cross-cultural studies will be carried out by researchers who have an interest in cultural variations on specific variables or instruments, whereas the group of researchers who spend their professional lives in cross-cultural psychology will remain small but influential. Methodological issues arising in studies by both groups are described. Important trends are (a) the change from exploration to explanation of cross-cultural differences, which has implications for the design of cross-cultural studies; and (b) the so-far-hesitant usage of recently developed statistical techniques, such as item response theory, structural equation modeling, and multilevel modeling.
Zhang, J. & Bond, M. H. (1998). Personality and filial piety among college students in two Chinese societies: The added value of indigenous constructs. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29(3), 402-417.
[Abstract] The present study examines the relationships between the endorsement of filial piety and both universal and indigenous personality trait factors among Chinese subjects. Two groups of college students from Hong Kong and Beijing participated in the study and completed a questionnaire composed of the Filial Piety Scale, the Five Factor Inventory (FFI), and five facets selected from the Chinese Tradition factor of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). The results showed that (a) the indigenous CPAI facets can significantly contribute to predicting filial piety scores over and above the universal FFI factors, and (b) among the five factors of the FFI, Neuroticism and Openness significantly predicted filial piety, whereas among the five facets of Chinese Tradition, Harmony and Renqing (relation orientation) were the two significant predictors. Thus, whether filial piety is universal or culture-specific, improved prediction requires using indigenous measures in addition to the FFI.